Raman spectroscopy as a versatile tool for studying the properties of graphene

Abstract

Raman spectroscopy is an integral part of graphene research. It is used to determine the number and orientation of layers, the quality and types of edge, and the effects of perturbations, such as electric and magnetic fields, strain, doping, disorder and functional groups. This, in turn, provides insight into all $s{p}^2$-bonded carbon allotropes, because graphene is their fundamental building block. Here we review the state of the art, future directions and open questions in Raman spectroscopy of graphene. We describe essential physical processes whose importance has only recently been recognized, such as the various types of resonance at play, and the role of quantum interference. We update all basic concepts and notations, and propose a terminology that is able to describe any result in literature. We finally highlight the potential of Raman spectroscopy for layered materials other than graphene.

main text + supplementary information

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• The Raman Fingerprint of Graphene
• Two Dimensional Atomic Crystals
• Boron nitride substrates for high-quality graphene electronics
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• Control of graphene's properties by reversible hydrogenation
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• Making graphene visible
• Fluorographene: Two Dimensional Counterpart of Teflon
• Electric Field Effect Tuning of Electron-Phonon Coupling in Graphene
• Raman Spectroscopy of Graphene Edges
• Raman Fingerprint of Charged Impurities in Graphene
• Excitonic Effects on the Optical Response of Graphene and Bilayer Graphene
• Defect scattering in graphene
• Rayleigh Imaging of Graphene and Graphene Layers
• Theory of double-resonant Raman spectra in graphene: intensity and line shape of defect-induced and two-phonon bands
• Spectroscopic ellipsometry of graphene and an exciton-shifted van Hove peak in absorption
• Edge-functionalized and substitutional doped graphene nanoribbons: electronic and spin properties
• Non-adiabatic Kohn-anomaly in a doped graphene monolayer
• Phonon anharmonicities in graphite and graphene
• Interference enhancement of Raman signal of graphene
• Probing the Electronic Structure of Bilayer Graphene by Raman Scattering
• Interference effect on Raman spectrum of graphene on SiO_2/Si
• Impact of the electron-electron correlation on phonon dispersions: failure of LDA and GGA functionals in graphene and graphite
• On resonant scatterers as a factor limiting carrier mobility in graphene
• Edge chirality determination of graphene by Raman spectroscopy
• Graphene under hydrostatic pressure
• Theory of resonant multiphonon Raman scattering in graphene
• Observation of out-of-plane vibrations in few-layer graphene
• Observation of Anomalous Phonon Softening in Bilayer Graphene
• Interplay of Coulomb and electron-phonon interactions in graphene
• Layer breathing modes in few-layer graphene
• Splitting of the Raman $2D$ band of graphene subjected to strain
• Filling-Factor-Dependent Magnetophonon Resonance in Graphene
• Boundary problems for Dirac electrons and edge-assisted Raman scattering in graphene
• Kohn Anomalies in Graphene Nanoribbons
• Optical Measurement of the Phase-Breaking Length in Graphene
• Layer number determination in graphene using out-of-plane vibrations
• On the inner Double-Resonance Raman scattering process in bilayer graphene
• Imaging Stacking Order in Few-Layer Graphene
• Role of electronic excitations in magneto-Raman spectra of graphene
• Dirac Fermions in Graphite: the State of Art
• Probing the band structure of quadri-layer graphene with magneto-phonon resonance

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• Electron-beam-induced Contactless Manipulation of Interlayer Twist in van der Waals Heterostructures
• Redox and Molecular Diffusion in 2D van der Waals Space
• Analysis of Current Hysteresis in Graphene Field Effect Transistor
• Quantitative principles for precise engineering of sensitivity in carbon-based electrochemical sensors
• Controlled Inertial Cavitation as a Route to High Yield Liquid Phase Exfoliation of Graphene
• Light-induced shear phonon splitting and instability in bilayer graphene
• Many-body effects in suspended graphene probed through magneto-phonon resonances
• Irradiation-induced metal-insulator transition in monolayer graphene
• Excitation energy dependence of Raman spectra of few-layer WS2
• Exploring the effect of varying regime of ion fluence on optical and surface electronic properties of CVD Grown Graphene
• Temperature Dependence of the Electrical Transport Properties of Multilayer Graphene
• Controlling the macroscopic electrical properties of reduced graphene oxide by nanoscale writing of electronic channels
• Doping dependence of the Raman spectrum of defected graphene
• Insulating Electronic States Near the Dirac Point Arising from Twisted Stacking and Curvature in 3D Nanoporous Graphene
• Van der Waals Antiferromagnets: From Early Discoveries to Future Directions in the 2D Limit
• Electrical and Structural Response of Nine-Atom-Wide Armchair Graphene Nanoribbon Transistors to Gamma Irradiation