Raman spectroscopy as a versatile tool for studying the properties of graphene

Abstract

Raman spectroscopy is an integral part of graphene research. It is used to determine the number and orientation of layers, the quality and types of edge, and the effects of perturbations, such as electric and magnetic fields, strain, doping, disorder and functional groups. This, in turn, provides insight into all $s{p}^2$-bonded carbon allotropes, because graphene is their fundamental building block. Here we review the state of the art, future directions and open questions in Raman spectroscopy of graphene. We describe essential physical processes whose importance has only recently been recognized, such as the various types of resonance at play, and the role of quantum interference. We update all basic concepts and notations, and propose a terminology that is able to describe any result in literature. We finally highlight the potential of Raman spectroscopy for layered materials other than graphene.

main text + supplementary information

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• Fluorographene: Two Dimensional Counterpart of Teflon
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• Raman Fingerprint of Charged Impurities in Graphene
• The Shear Mode of Multi-Layer Graphene
• Excitonic Effects on the Optical Response of Graphene and Bilayer Graphene
• Defect scattering in graphene
• Observation of zigzag and armchair edges of graphite using scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy
• Rayleigh Imaging of Graphene and Graphene Layers
• Theory of double-resonant Raman spectra in graphene: intensity and line shape of defect-induced and two-phonon bands
• Raman spectroscopy study of rotated double-layer graphene: Misorientation-angle dependence of electronic structure
• Spectroscopic ellipsometry of graphene and an exciton-shifted van Hove peak in absorption
• Edge-functionalized and substitutional doped graphene nanoribbons: electronic and spin properties
• Non-adiabatic Kohn-anomaly in a doped graphene monolayer
• Shear and Layer Breathing Modes in Multilayer MoS2
• Phonon anharmonicities in graphite and graphene
• Electron-electron interactions and doping dependence of the two-phonon Raman intensity in graphene
• Interference enhancement of Raman signal of graphene
• Strain-dependent Splitting of Double Resonance Raman Scattering Band in Graphene
• Probing the Electronic Structure of Bilayer Graphene by Raman Scattering
• Interference effect on Raman spectrum of graphene on SiO_2/Si
• Impact of the electron-electron correlation on phonon dispersions: failure of LDA and GGA functionals in graphene and graphite
• Phonon renormalisation in doped bilayer graphene
• On resonant scatterers as a factor limiting carrier mobility in graphene
• Edge chirality determination of graphene by Raman spectroscopy
• Graphene under hydrostatic pressure
• Theory of resonant multiphonon Raman scattering in graphene
• Observation of out-of-plane vibrations in few-layer graphene
• Observation of Anomalous Phonon Softening in Bilayer Graphene
• Raman Spectroscopy of Lithographically Patterned Graphene Nanoribbons
• Interplay of Coulomb and electron-phonon interactions in graphene
• Layer breathing modes in few-layer graphene
• Splitting of the Raman $2D$ band of graphene subjected to strain
• Valley separation in graphene by polarized light
• Tuning the electron-phonon coupling in multilayer graphene with magnetic fields
• Filling-Factor-Dependent Magnetophonon Resonance in Graphene
• Magneto-Raman scattering of graphene on graphite: Electronic and phonon excitations
• Phonon surface mapping of graphite: disentangling quasi--degenerate phonon dispersions
• A non-dispersive Raman D-band activated by well-ordered interlayer interactions in rotationally stacked bi-layer Graphene
• Optical Measurement of the Phase-Breaking Length in Graphene
• Calculation of the Raman G peak intensity in monolayer graphene: role of Ward identities
• Boundary problems for Dirac electrons and edge-assisted Raman scattering in graphene
• Signature of electronic excitations in the Raman spectrum of graphene
• Observation of magneto-phonon resonance of Dirac fermions in graphite
• Kohn Anomalies in Graphene Nanoribbons
• Optical Measurement of the Phase-Breaking Length in Graphene
• Layer number determination in graphene using out-of-plane vibrations
• Electronic excitations and electron-phonon coupling in bulk graphite through Raman scattering in high magnetic fields
• Multiphonon Raman Scattering in Graphene
• Magnetophonon resonance in graphite: High-field Raman measurements and electron-phonon coupling contributions
• On the inner Double-Resonance Raman scattering process in bilayer graphene
• Imaging Stacking Order in Few-Layer Graphene
• Effect of a magnetic field on the two-phonon Raman scattering in graphene
• Role of electronic excitations in magneto-Raman spectra of graphene
• Dirac Fermions in Graphite: the State of Art
• Effect of anisotropic band curvature on carrier multiplication in graphene
• Probing the band structure of quadri-layer graphene with magneto-phonon resonance

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• Raman tensor for two-dimensional massive Dirac fermions
• Dynamic strain in gold nanoparticle supported graphene induced by focused laser irradiation
• Contact-less characterizations of encapsulated graphene p-n junctions
• Following the Long-Term Evolution of sp${}^3$-type Defects in Tritiated Graphene using Raman Spectroscopy
• Analysis of Side-band Inequivalence
• Engineering tunable strain fields in suspended graphene by microelectromechanical systems
• Optimization of epitaxial graphene growth for quantum metrology
• Using a biased qubit to probe complex systems
• Interplay of vibrational, electronic, and magnetic states in CrSBr
• Graphene structure modification under tritium exposure: 3H chemisorption dominates over defect formation by \b{eta}-radiation
• Phonon spectra, quantum geometry, and the Goldstone theorem
• Low voltage graphene interface engineered organic ferroelectric tunnel junction devices
• Deterministic transfer of two-dimensional materials by all-dry viscoelastic stamping
• Measuring the Adhesion of Graphene Flake Networks via Button Shear Tests
• Beyond Lithium-Ion Batteries: Are Effective Electrodes Possible for Alkaline and Other Alkali Elements? Exploring Ion Intercalation in Surface-Modified Few-Layer Graphene and Examining Layer Quantity and Stages
• Interference effects in polarization controlled Rayleigh scattering in twisted bilayer graphene
• Giant Shear Displacement by Light-Induced Raman Force in Bilayer Graphene
• Stacking sequence determines Raman intensities of observed interlayer shear modes in 2D layered materials - A general bond polarizability model
• Graphene Overcoats for Ultra-High Storage Density Magnetic Media
• Graphene Domain Signature of Raman Spectra of sp2 Amorphous Carbons
• Self-Organized Graphene/Graphite Structures Obtained Directly on Paper
• Hometronics: Accessible production of graphene suspensions for health sensing applications using only household items
• Theory of Graphene Raman Spectroscopy
• Non-modified Thermally-derived Onion-like Carbon As Electrocatalyst for [VO]2+/[VO2]+ Redox Flow Battery
• Polarization and driving force analysis of coherent optical shear phonons in graphite
• Quantitative principles for precise engineering of sensitivity in carbon-based electrochemical sensors
• Temperature Dependence of the Electrical Transport Properties of Multilayer Graphene
• Controlling the macroscopic electrical properties of reduced graphene oxide by nanoscale writing of electronic channels
• Light-induced shear phonon splitting and instability in bilayer graphene
• Redox and Molecular Diffusion in 2D van der Waals Space
• Insulating Electronic States Near the Dirac Point Arising from Twisted Stacking and Curvature in 3D Nanoporous Graphene
• Van der Waals Antiferromagnets: From Early Discoveries to Future Directions in the 2D Limit
• Electrical and Structural Response of Nine-Atom-Wide Armchair Graphene Nanoribbon Transistors to Gamma Irradiation
• Wafer-Scale Single-Crystalline Monolayer Graphene
• Impact of hydrogenation on the structure, chemistry, and electrical properties of flame-synthesized carbon nanoparticle films
• Electron-beam-induced Contactless Manipulation of Interlayer Twist in van der Waals Heterostructures
• Exploring the effect of varying regime of ion fluence on optical and surface electronic properties of CVD Grown Graphene
• Many-body effects in suspended graphene probed through magneto-phonon resonances
• Irradiation-induced metal-insulator transition in monolayer graphene
• Excitation energy dependence of Raman spectra of few-layer WS2
• Analysis of Current Hysteresis in Graphene Field Effect Transistor
• Doping dependence of the Raman spectrum of defected graphene
• Controlled Inertial Cavitation as a Route to High Yield Liquid Phase Exfoliation of Graphene