Review of performance metrics of spin qubits in gated semiconducting nanostructures

Abstract

This Technical Review collects values of selected performance characteristics of semiconductor spin qubits defined in electrically controlled nanostructures. The characteristics are envisioned to serve as a community source for the values of figures of merit with agreed-on definitions allowing the comparison of different spin qubit platforms. We include characteristics on the qubit coherence, speed, fidelity, and the qubit-size of multiqubit devices. The focus is on collecting and curating the values of these characteristics as reported in the literature, rather than on their motivation or significance.

arXiv commentThe 10th version of the review. It covers values published until the end of May 2025. Please see https://github.com/PeterStano/ReviewOfSpinQubits for changes with respect to the previous version

References in corpus (275)

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• Computing with spin qubits at the surface code error threshold
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• Triplet-Singlet Spin Relaxation via Nuclei in a Double Quantum Dot
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• Electrical control of spin relaxation in a quantum dot
• The Resonant Exchange Qubit
• A fault-tolerant addressable spin qubit in a natural silicon quantum dot
• Long-Range Microwave Mediated Interactions Between Electron Spins
• A fast "hybrid" silicon double quantum dot qubit
• Electron spin dynamics in quantum dots and related nanostructures due to hyperfine interaction with nuclei
• Two-qubit Gate of Combined Single Spin Rotation and Inter-dot Spin Exchange in a Double Quantum Dot
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• Scaling of Dynamical Decoupling for Spin Qubits
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• A single-hole spin qubit
• A high-sensitivity gate-based charge sensor in silicon
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• Fast spin-orbit qubit in an indium antimonide nanowire
• Rapid high-fidelity gate-based spin read-out in silicon
• Gate-based single-shot readout of spins in silicon
• Tunable spin-selective loading of a silicon spin qubit
• Ultrafast Hole Spin Qubit with Gate-Tunable Spin-Orbit Switch
• Gate fidelity and coherence of an electron spin in a Si/SiGe quantum dot with micromagnet
• Charge and spin state readout of a double quantum dot coupled to a resonator
• A singlet triplet hole spin qubit in planar Ge
• A valley-spin qubit in a carbon nanotube
• Electrically controlling single spin qubits in a continuous microwave field
• Microwave-driven coherent operations of a semiconductor quantum dot charge qubit
• Quantifying the quantum gate fidelity of single-atom spin qubits in silicon by randomized benchmarking
• Relaxation and Dephasing in a Two-electron 13C Nanotube Double Quantum Dot
• Electrical spin driving by $g$-matrix modulation in spin-orbit qubits
• Interlaced Dynamical Decoupling and Coherent Operation of a Singlet-Triplet Qubit
• Quantum Dot Arrays in Silicon and Germanium
• Gate-reflectometry dispersive readout and coherent control of a spin qubit in silicon
• Ultrafast coherent control of a hole spin qubit in a germanium quantum dot
• Investigating the limits of randomized benchmarking protocols
• Benchmarking Gate Fidelities in a Si/SiGe Two-Qubit Device
• Low-frequency spin qubit detuning noise in highly purified ${}^{28}$Si/SiGe
• Coherent shuttle of electron-spin states
• Spin lifetime and charge noise in hot silicon quantum dot qubits
• Measurement of the Spin Relaxation Time of Single Electrons in a Silicon MOS-Based Quantum Dot
• Experimental signature of phonon-mediated spin relaxation
• Assessment of a silicon quantum dot spin qubit environment via noise spectroscopy
• Single-qubit lasing and cooling at the Rabi frequency
• Single-Spin CCD
• Loading a quantum-dot based "Qubyte" register
• Bounding quantum gate error rate based on reported average fidelity
• A Graphene Quantum Dot with a Single Electron Transistor as Integrated Charge Sensor
• Performance comparison of dynamical decoupling sequences for a qubit in a rapidly fluctuating spin-bath
• Probing low noise at the MOS interface with a spin-orbit qubit
• Measurement of Temporal Correlations of the Overhauser Field in a Double Quantum Dot
• Quantum tomography of an entangled three-spin state in silicon
• Fast charge sensing of a cavity-coupled double quantum dot using a Josephson parametric amplifier
• Coherent Quantum Oscillations in a Silicon Charge Qubit
• Notch filtering the nuclear environment of a spin qubit
• Electrically driven electron spin resonance mediated by spin-valley-orbit coupling in a silicon quantum dot
• Coherent spin state transfer via Heisenberg exchange
• A Dressed Spin Qubit in Silicon
• Fast Electrical Control of Single Electron Spins in Quantum Dots with Vanishing Influence from Nuclear Spins
• Spin-orbit coupling and operation of multi-valley spin qubits
• Universal phase shift and non-exponential decay of driven single-spin oscillations
• Fast coherent manipulation of three-electron states in a double quantum dot
• Pauli Blockade in Silicon Quantum Dots with Spin-Orbit Control
• Coherent transfer of quantum information in silicon using resonant SWAP gates
• Circuit Quantum Electrodynamics Architecture for Gate-Defined Quantum Dots in Silicon
• Bipolar spin blockade and coherent state superpositions in a triple quantum dot
• Probing relaxation times in graphene quantum dots
• Integrated silicon qubit platform with single-spin addressability, exchange control and robust single-shot singlet-triplet readout
• Electrical control of g-factors in a few-hole silicon nanowire MOSFET
• Single-shot measurement of triplet-singlet relaxation in a Si/SiGe double quantum dot
• Radio-frequency detected fast charge sensing in undoped silicon quantum dots
• Single-electron control in a foundry-fabricated two-dimensional qubit array
• High fidelity resonant gating of a silicon based quantum dot hybrid qubit
• Hole Spin Coherence in a Ge/Si Heterostructure Nanowire
• Conditional operation of a spin qubit
• Out of equilibrium charge dynamics in a hybrid cQED architecture
• Controlling spin-orbit interactions in silicon quantum dots using magnetic field direction
• Heavy hole states in Germanium hut wires
• Extending the coherence of a quantum dot hybrid qubit
• Tunable Hybrid Qubit in a GaAs Double Quantum Dot
• Large, tunable valley splitting and single-spin relaxation mechanisms in a Si/Si${}_x$Ge${}_{1-x}$ quantum dot
• Coherent spin-exchange via a quantum mediator
• Spectrum of the Nuclear Environment for GaAs Spin Qubits
• Coherent long-distance displacement of individual electron spins
• Repetitive single electron spin readout in silicon
• Charge Relaxation in a Single Electron Si/SiGe Double Quantum Dot
• Coherent spin control of s-, p-, d- and f-electrons in a silicon quantum dot
• Fast gate-based readout of silicon quantum dots using Josephson parametric amplification
• Quantifying error and leakage in an encoded Si/SiGe triple-dot qubit
• Microwave photon-mediated interactions between semiconductor qubits
• Quantum manipulation of two-electron spin states in metastable double quantum dots
• Rapid high-fidelity spin state readout in Si/SiGe quantum dots via radio-frequency reflectometry
• A flexible design platform for Si/SiGe exchange-only qubits with low disorder
• Resonantly driven singlet-triplet spin qubit in silicon
• Closed-loop control of a GaAs-based singlet-triplet spin qubit with 99.5% gate fidelity and low leakage
• Effect of Exchange Interaction on Spin Dephasing in a Double Quantum Dot
• Microwave Emission from Hybridized States in a Semiconductor Charge Qubit
• Distant spin entanglement via fast and coherent electron shuttling
• A 2x2 quantum dot array with controllable inter-dot tunnel couplings
• Two-Electron Spin Correlations in Precision Placed Donors in Silicon
• Engineering long spin coherence times of spin-orbit systems
• Cavity QED with hybrid nanocircuits: from atomic-like physics to condensed matter phenomena
• Single-spin qubits in isotopically enriched silicon at low magnetic field
• All-Microwave Control and Dispersive Readout of Gate-Defined Quantum Dot Qubits in Circuit Quantum Electrodynamics
• Single to quadruple quantum dots with tunable tunnel couplings
• Quantum nondemolition measurement of an electron spin qubit
• Single-Spin Relaxation in a Synthetic Spin-Orbit Field
• Single-electron Double Quantum Dot Dipole-coupled to a Single Photonic Mode
• Hyperfine-phonon spin relaxation in a single-electron GaAs quantum dot
• Single-shot readout and relaxation of singlet/triplet states in exchange-coupled ${}^{31}$P electron spins in silicon
• Optimization of a solid-state electron spin qubit using Gate Set Tomography
• Robust Single-Shot Spin Measurement with 99.5% Fidelity in a Quantum Dot Array
• Spin-orbit Interactions for Singlet-Triplet Qubits in Silicon
• Adiabatic quantum state transfer in a semiconductor quantum-dot spin chain
• Nonadiabatic quantum control of a semiconductor charge qubit
• Site-selective quantum control in an isotopically enriched 28Si/SiGe quadruple quantum dot
• Fast and high-fidelity state preparation and measurement in triple-quantum-dot spin qubits
• Coherent microwave photon mediated coupling between a semiconductor and a superconductor qubit
• Charge Number Dependence of the Dephasing Rates of a Graphene Double Quantum Dot in a Circuit QED Architecture
• Anisotropic Pauli Spin Blockade of Holes in a GaAs Double Quantum Dot
• Spin readout of a CMOS quantum dot by gate reflectometry and spin-dependent tunnelling
• A few-electron quadruple quantum dot in a closed loop
• Coherence and Screening in Multi-Electron Spin Qubits
• Quantum dephasing in a gated GaAs triple quantum dot due to nonergodic noise
• Optimized electrical control of a Si/SiGe spin qubit in the presence of an induced frequency shift
• Relaxation and Readout Visibility of a Singlet-Triplet Qubit in an Overhauser Field Gradient
• Charge detection in an array of CMOS quantum dots
• Clean carbon nanotubes coupled to superconducting impedance-matching circuits
• Non-destructive measurement of electron spins in a quantum dot
• Single-shot readout of hole spins in Ge
• Quantum simulation of antiferromagnetic Heisenberg chain with gate-defined quantum dots
• Coherent long-distance spin-qubit-transmon coupling
• Conditional quantum operation of two exchange-coupled single-donor spin qubits in a MOS-compatible silicon device
• Spin relaxation benchmarks and individual qubit addressability for holes in quantum dots
• Highly coherent spin states in carbon nanotubes coupled to cavity photons
• Fast spin exchange between two distant quantum dots
• Giant anisotropy of spin relaxation and spin-valley mixing in a silicon quantum dot
• Repetitive quantum non-demolition measurement and soft decoding of a silicon spin qubit
• Detection and control of charge states in a quintuple quantum dot
• Spin relaxation anisotropy in a GaAs quantum dot
• Anisotropy and suppression of spin--orbit interaction in a GaAs double quantum dot
• A silicon singlet-triplet qubit driven by spin-valley coupling
• Flopping-mode electric dipole spin resonance
• Large dispersive interaction between a CMOS double quantum dot and microwave photons
• Landau-Zener-Stuckelberg-Majorana interferometry of a single hole
• Detuning Axis Pulsed Spectroscopy of Valley-Orbital States in Si/SiGe Quantum Dots
• Full control of quadruple quantum dot circuit charge states in the single electron regime
• Exchange Control of Nuclear Spin Diffusion in a Double Quantum Dot
• High Fidelity Single-Shot Singlet-Triplet Readout of Precision Placed Donors in Silicon
• Simultaneous Operations in a Two-Dimensional Array of Singlet-Triplet Qubits
• A two-dimensional array of single-hole quantum dots
• Symmetric Operation of the Resonant Exchange Qubit
• Coherent electron-spin-resonance manipulation of three individual spins in a triple quantum dot
• Single-electron operation of a silicon-CMOS 2x2 quantum dot array with integrated charge sensing
• Single, double, and triple quantum dots in Ge/Si nanowires
• Exchange coupling in a linear chain of three quantum-dot spin qubits in silicon
• Controllable freezing of the nuclear spin bath in a single-atom spin qubit
• Long-Distance Superexchange between Semiconductor Quantum-Dot Electron Spins
• Readout Of Singlet-Triplet Qubits At Large Magnetic Field Gradients
• Resolving Spin-Orbit and Hyperfine Mediated Electric Dipole Spin Resonance in a Quantum Dot
• Strong photon coupling to the quadrupole moment of an electron in solid state
• Dressed photon-orbital states in a quantum dot: Inter-valley spin resonance
• Spatial Noise Correlations in a Si/SiGe Two-Qubit Device from Bell State Coherences
• Enhanced spin coherence while displacing electron in a 2D array of quantum dots
• Fast charge sensing of Si/SiGe quantum dots via a high-frequency accumulation gate
• Electron spin relaxation of single phosphorus donors in metal-oxide-semiconductor nanoscale devices
• Spin digitizer for high-fidelity readout of a cavity-coupled silicon triple quantum dot
• Single-shot readout of a driven hybrid qubit in a GaAs double quantum dot
• Charge detection in a bilayer graphene quantum dot
• Correlated spectrum of distant semiconductor qubits coupled by microwave photons
• Single-electron Spin Resonance in a Quadruple Quantum Dot
• Single and Double Hole Quantum Dots in Strained Ge/SiGe Quantum Wells
• A fast quantum interface between different spin qubit encodings
• Conditional Teleportation of Quantum-Dot Spin States
• Spin-Blockade Spectroscopy of Si/SiGe Quantum Dots
• Bell-state tomography in a silicon many-electron artificial molecule
• Magnetic Gradient Fluctuations from Quadrupolar ${}^{73}$Ge in Si/SiGe Exchange-Only Qubits
• Probing the Spatial Variation of the Inter-Valley Tunnel Coupling in a Silicon Triple Quantum Dot
• Dispersively probed microwave spectroscopy of a silicon hole double quantum dot
• Radio-frequency reflectometry of a quantum dot using an ultra-low-noise SQUID amplifier
• Remote capacitive sensing in two-dimension quantum-dot arrays
• Microwave spectroscopy of a carbon nanotube charge qubit
• Microwave cavity detected spin blockade in a few electron double quantum dot
• A linear triple quantum dot system in isolated configuration
• Realization of a $C{Q}_3$ Qubit: energy spectroscopy and coherence
• Nanosecond-timescale spin transfer using individual electrons in a quadruple-quantum-dot device
• Fast Bayesian tomography of a two-qubit gate set in silicon
• Dipole coupling of a tunable hole double quantum dot in germanium hut wire to a microwave resonator
• Stable quantum dots in an InSb two-dimensional electron gas
• Beating the thermal limit of qubit initialization with a Bayesian Maxwell's demon
• Split-Gate Cavity Coupler for Silicon Circuit Quantum Electrodynamics
• Electron cascade for spin readout
• Device Architecture for Coupling Spin Qubits Via an Intermediate Quantum State
• Lifetime measurements (T1) of electron spins in Si/SiGe quantum dots
• Robust energy selective tunneling readout of singlet triplet qubits under large magnetic field gradient
• Magnetic gradient free two axis control of a valley spin qubit in SiGe
• Probabilistic teleportation of a quantum dot spin qubit
• Democratizing Spin Qubits
• High fidelity measurement of singlet-triplet states in a quantum dot
• Guide to Mathematical Concepts of Quantum Theory
• Co-tunneling spin blockade observed in a three-terminal triple quantum dot
• Integrated multiplexed microwave readout of silicon quantum dots in a cryogenic CMOS chip

Cited by in corpus (72)

• Semiconductor Spin Qubits
• Reducing charge noise in quantum dots by using thin silicon quantum wells
• Long-lived valley states in bilayer graphene quantum dots
• Noise-correlation spectrum for a pair of spin qubits in silicon
• Hard superconducting gap in germanium
• Single-shot readout in graphene quantum dots
• Two-qubit logic between distant spins in silicon
• Universal control of four singlet-triplet qubits
• Electrical control of uniformity in quantum dot devices
• Mapping of valley-splitting by conveyor-mode spin-coherent electron shuttling
• Enhanced Electron Spin Coherence in a GaAs Quantum Emitter
• High-fidelity two-qubit gates of hybrid superconducting-semiconducting singlet-triplet qubits
• Fast quantum transfer mediated by topological domain walls
• Quantum Batteries: A Materials Science Perspective
• Spin-Valley Protected Kramers Pair in Bilayer Graphene
• Charge-noise induced dephasing in silicon hole-spin qubits
• Testing platform-independent quantum error mitigation on noisy quantum computers
• Real-time two-axis control of a spin qubit
• Compromise-Free Scaling of Qubit Speed and Coherence
• High Fidelity Control of a Nitrogen-Vacancy Spin Qubit at Room Temperature using the SMART Protocol
• Decoherence induced by a sparse bath of two-level fluctuators: peculiar features of $1/f$ noise in high-quality qubits
• Coherent interaction of a-few-electron quantum dot with a terahertz optical resonator
• Improved placement precision of implanted donor spin qubits in silicon using molecule ions
• A two-dimensional 10-qubit array in germanium with robust and localised qubit control
• Single-step high-fidelity three-qubit gates by anisotropic chiral interactions
• Layering and subpool exploration for adaptive Variational Quantum Eigensolvers: Reducing circuit depth, runtime, and susceptibility to noise
• Pauli blockade catalogue and three- and four-particle Kondo effect in bilayer graphene quantum dots
• Agents for self-driving laboratories applied to quantum computing
• Flying Spin Qubits in Quantum Dot Arrays Driven by Spin-Orbit Interaction
• Nuclear Spin Engineering for Quantum Information Science
• 1/f noise in quantum nanoscience
• Protected Solid-State Qubits
• Modelling of planar germanium hole qubits in electric and magnetic fields
• Subgap states in semiconductor-superconductor devices for quantum technologies: Andreev qubits and minimal Majorana chains
• The origins of noise in the Zeeman splitting of spin qubits in natural-silicon devices
• A compact and versatile cryogenic probe station for quantum device testing
• A photonic which-path entangler based on longitudinal cavity-qubit coupling
• Semiconductor-based electron flying qubits: Review on recent progress accelerated by numerical modelling
• Leveraging Off-the-Shelf Silicon Chips for Quantum Computing
• A spinless spin qubit
• Optimal operation of hole spin qubits
• Density Matrix Renormalization Group Study of Domain Wall Qubits
• Quantum geometric protocols for fast high-fidelity adiabatic state transfer
• Quantum estimation and remote charge sensing with a hole-spin qubit in silicon
• Entangled Photon-Pair Emission in Waveguide Circuit QED from a Cooper Pair Splitter
• Erasure conversion for singlet-triplet spin qubits enables high-performance shuttling-based quantum error correction
• Mitigation of exchange cross-talk in dense quantum dot arrays
• Radiofrequency cascade readout of coupled spin qubits
• Quantification of the heavy-hole--light-hole mixing in two-dimensional hole gases
• Minimal evolution times for fast, pulse-based state preparation in silicon spin qubits
• Envelope-function theory of inhomogeneous strain in semiconductor nanostructures
• Terahertz Spin-Light Coupling in Proximitized Dirac Materials
• Multi-qubit DC gates over an inhomogeneous array of quantum dots
• Variability of hole spin qubits in planar Germanium
• Quantum gates in coupled quantum dots controlled by coupling modulation
• Concatenated continuous driving of silicon qubit by amplitude and phase modulation
• Spin-qubit readout analysis based on a hidden Markov model
• Fabrication, characterization and mechanical loading of Si/SiGe membranes for spin qubit devices
• Andreev spin qubit protected by Franck-Condon blockade
• Dressed basis sets for the modeling of exchange interactions in double quantum dots
• Proposed Five-Electron Charge Quadrupole Qubit
• Protecting entanglement witnesses with randomized measurements
• Dynamical nuclear spin polarization in a quantum dot with an electron spin driven by electric dipole spin resonance
• Digital-Controlled Method of Conveyor-Belt Spin Shuttling in Silicon for Large-Scale Quantum Computation
• Negative exchange interaction in Si quantum dot arrays via valley-phase induced ${\mathbb{Z}}_2$ gauge field
• Wide Electrical Tunability of the Valley Splitting in a Doubly gated Silicon-on-Insulator Quantum Well
• Comparison of spin-qubit architectures for quantum error-correcting codes
• Robust Tripartite Entanglement Generation via Correlated Noise in Spin Qubits
• Extending Qubit Coherence Time via Hybrid Dynamical Decoupling
• Spin qubit shuttling between coupled quantum dots with inhomogeneous Landé g-tensors
• Four-state discrimination for a pair of spin qubits via gate reflectometry
• Kramers-protected hardware-efficient error correction with Andreev spin qubits