ALMA Survey of Lupus Protoplanetary Disks I: Dust and Gas Masses

Abstract

We present the first high-resolution sub-mm survey of both dust and gas for a large population of protoplanetary disks. Characterizing fundamental properties of protoplanetary disks on a statistical level is critical to understanding how disks evolve into the diverse exoplanet population. We use ALMA to survey 89 protoplanetary disks around stars with $M_{\ast }>0.1M_{\odot }$ in the young (1--3~Myr), nearby (150--200~pc) Lupus complex. Our observations cover the 890~$\mu$m continuum and the ${}^{13}$CO and C${}^{18}$O 3--2 lines. We use the sub-mm continuum to constrain $M_{\mathrm{dust}}$ to a few Martian masses (0.2--0.4~$M_{\oplus }$) and the CO isotopologue lines to constrain $M_{\mathrm{gas}}$ to roughly a Jupiter mass (assuming ISM-like $[\mathrm{CO}]/[{\mathrm{H}}_2]$ abundance). Of 89 sources, we detect 62 in continuum, 36 in ${}^{13}$CO, and 11 in C${}^{18}$O at $>3\sigma$ significance. Stacking individually undetected sources limits their average dust mass to $\lesssim 6$ Lunar masses (0.03~$M_{\oplus }$), indicating rapid evolution once disk clearing begins. We find a positive correlation between $M_{\mathrm{dust}}$ and $M_{\ast }$, and present the first evidence for a positive correlation between $M_{\mathrm{gas}}$ and $M_{\ast }$, which may explain the dependence of giant planet frequency on host star mass. The mean dust mass in Lupus is 3$\times$ higher than in Upper Sco, while the dust mass distributions in Lupus and Taurus are statistically indistinguishable. Most detected disks have $M_{\mathrm{gas}}\lesssim 1M_{\mathrm{Jup}}$ and gas-to-dust ratios $<100$, assuming ISM-like $[\mathrm{CO}]/[{\mathrm{H}}_2]$ abundance; unless CO is very depleted, the inferred gas depletion indicates that planet formation is well underway by a few Myr and may explain the unexpected prevalence of super-Earths in the exoplanet population.

Accepted to ApJ (13 pages, 9 figures + appendix); The full machine readable tables are available under "Ancillary files" or can be obtained by downloading and extracting the gzipped tar source file listed under "Other formats."

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• Evolution of circumstellar discs in young star-forming regions
• Different degrees of nitrogen and carbon depletion in the warm molecular layers of protoplanetary disks
• Outflows, envelopes, and disks as evolutionary indicators in Lupus YSOs
• A UV-to-NIR Study of Molecular Gas in the Dust Cavity Around RY Lupi
• New binaries from the SHINE survey
• The ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO): III. Dust and Gas Disk Properties in the Lupus Star-forming Region
• The Spin-Orbit Misalignment of TOI-1842b: The First Measurement of the Rossiter-McLaughlin Effect for a Warm Sub-Saturn around a Massive Star
• A Theoretical Framework for the Mass Distribution of Gas Giant Planets forming through the Core Accretion Paradigm
• Exploring HNC and HCN line emission as probes of the protoplanetary disk temperature
• Early Planet Formation in Embedded Disks (eDisk) V: Possible Annular Substructure in a Circumstellar Disk in the Ced110 IRS4 System
• Physical and Chemical Conditions of the Protostellar Envelope and the Protoplanetary Disk in HL Tau
• Making the Solar System
• Chemical modeling of Orion Nebula Cluster disks: evidence for massive, compact gas disks with ISM-like gas-to-dust ratios
• Super-Earths and sub-Neptunes are Insensitive to Stellar Metallicity
• Probing the protoplanetary disk gas surface density distribution with ${}^{13}$CO emission
• The TW Hya Rosetta Stone Project IV: A hydrocarbon rich disk atmosphere
• Protostellar Evolution in Serpens Main: Possible Origin of Disk-Size Diversity
• The ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO): IV. Dust and Gas Disk Properties in the Upper Scorpius Star-forming Region
• Gravitational instabilities in a protosolar-like disc II: continuum emission and mass estimates
• Observing protoplanetary discs with the Square Kilometre Array -- I. Characterising pebble substructure caused by forming planets
• The ALMA survey to Resolve exoKuiper belt Substructures (ARKS) I: Motivation, sample, data reduction, and results overview
• An asymmetric dust ring around a very low mass star ZZ Tau IRS
• The centimeter emission from planet-forming disks in Taurus
• A 3mm chemical exploration of small organics in Class I YSOs
• An ALMA Dynamical Mass Estimate of the Proposed Planetary-mass Companion FW Tau C
• Early Planet Formation in Embedded Disks (eDisk) IX: High-resolution ALMA Observations of the Class 0 Protostar R CrA IRS5N and its surrounding
• ALMA Observations of Young Eruptive Stars: continuum disk sizes and molecular outflows
• Thermal processing of primordial pebbles in evolving protoplanetary disks
• Dust Accumulation near the Magnetospheric Truncation of Protoplanetary Discs around T Tauri Stars
• On the time evolution of the $M_{\mathrm{d}}-M_{\star }$ and $\dot{M}-M_{\star }$ correlations for protoplanetary discs: the viscous timescale increases with stellar mass
• An analytic solution to measure the gas size in protoplanetary discs in the viscous self-similar scenario
• Resolved imaging of the AR Puppis circumbinary disk
• A magnetic white-dwarf accretion model for the anomalous X-ray pulsar 4U 0142+61
• Disentangling protoplanetary disk gas mass and carbon depletion through combined atomic and molecular tracers
• Mass determination of protoplanetary disks from dust evolution
• Gravitoviscous Protoplanetary Discs with a Dust Component. IV. Disc Outer Edges, Spectral Indices, and Opacity Gaps
• The ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO): VIII. The impact of external photoevaporation on disk masses and radii in Upper Scorpius
• Formation of Planetary Populations II: Effects of Initial Disk Size & Radial Dust Drift
• ALMA reveals a pseudo-disc in a proto-brown dwarf
• Accuracy of ALMA estimates of young disk radii and masses. Predicted observations from numerical simulations
• Formation of wide-orbit giant planets in protoplanetary disks with a decreasing pebble flux
• The Concentration and Growth of Solids in Fragmenting Circumstellar Disks
• Dust Growth and Dynamics in Protoplanetary Nebulae: Implications for Opacity, Thermal Profile and Gravitational Instability
• On dust evolution in planet-forming discs in binary systems. II -- Comparison with Taurus and $\rho$ Ophiuchus (sub-)millimetre observations: discs in binaries have small dust sizes
• Sublimation of refractory minerals in the gas envelopes of accreting rocky planets
• High-resolution ALMA observations of compact discs in the wide-binary system Sz 65 and Sz 66
• Planet formation in the PDS 70 system: Constraining the atmospheric chemistry of PDS 70b and c
• Running with the Bulls: The frequency of star-disc encounters in the Taurus star forming region
• Protostellar and Protoplanetary Disk Masses in the Serpens Region
• Testing protoplanetary disc evolution with CO fluxes. A proof of concept in Lupus and Upper Sco
• Toward a Population Synthesis of Disks and Planets I. Evolution of Dust with Entrainment in Winds and Radiation Pressure
• Implementation of dust particles in three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamics simulation: Dust dynamics in a collapsing cloud core
• Why do more massive stars host larger planets?
• Probing UV-Sensitive Pathways for CN and HCN Formation in Protoplanetary Disks with the Hubble Space Telescope
• Demographics of Protoplanetary Disks: A Simulated Population of Edge-on Systems
• A giant planet shaping the disk around the very low-mass star CIDA 1
• Hints of a Population of Solar System Analog Planets from ALMA
• The statistical properties of protostellar discs and their dependence on metallicity
• The big sibling of AU Mic: a cold dust-rich debris disk around CP-72 2713 in the $\beta$ Pic moving group
• The Formation of Protoplanetary Disks through Pre-Main Sequence Bondi-Hoyle Accretion
• The Radial Distribution and Excitation of H2 around Young Stars in the HST-ULLYSES Survey
• Machine learning-accelerated chemistry modeling of protoplanetary disks
• Ionization-Driven Depletion and Redistribution of CO in Protoplanetary Disks
• Three-Dimensional Dust Stirring by a Giant Planet Embedded in a Protoplanetary Disk
• Search for Alignment of Disk Orientations in Nearby Star-Forming Regions: Lupus, Taurus, Upper Scorpius, $\rho$ Ophiuchi, and Orion
• Atacama Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope (AtLAST) Science: Our Galaxy
• The effect of the streaming instability on protoplanetary disc emission at millimetre wavelengths
• The formation of CO${}_2$ through consumption of gas-phase CO on vacuum-UV irradiated water ice
• The Envelope Kinematics and a Possible Disk Around the Class 0 Protostar within BHR7
• Ring Formation in Protoplanetary Disks Driven by an Eccentric Instability
• Combined Effects of Disk Winds and Turbulence-Driven Accretion on Planet Populations
• Extreme Pebble Accretion in Ringed Protoplanetary Discs
• New Spatially Resolved Imaging of the SR 21 Transition Disk and Constraints on the Small-Grain Disk Geometry
• CO isotopolog line fluxes of viscously evolving disks: cold CO conversion insufficient to explain observed low fluxes
• Pebbles in an Embedded Protostellar Disk: The Case of CB26
• Magnetic disk winds in protoplanetary disks: Description of the model and impact on global disk evolution
• The circumstellar environment of EX Lup: the SPHERE and SINFONI views
• Origin and Evolution of Angular Momentum of Class II Disks
• The disk of 2MASS 15491331-3539118 = GQ Lup C as seen by HST and WISE
• Chemical enrichment of the planet forming region as probed by accretion
• An SMA Survey of Chemistry in Disks around Herbig AeBe Stars
• ALMA observations of the early stages of substellar formation in the Lupus 1 and 3 molecular clouds
• Vertical CO surfaces as a probe for protoplanetary disk mass and carbon depletion
• Lyman-alpha Scattering Models Trace Accretion and Outflow Kinematics in T Tauri Systems
• There is no disk mass budget problem of planet formation
• An SMA Continuum Survey of Circumstellar Disks in the Serpens Star-Forming Region
• An APEX search for carbon emission from NGC 1977 proplyds
• ALMA and VLA Observations of EX Lupi in its Quiescent State
• Isotopic enrichment of planetary systems from Asymptotic Giant Branch stars
• High resolution ALMA and HST imaging of $\kappa$CrB: a broad debris disc around a post-main sequence star with low-mass companions
• The ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO): VI. Comparison of Dust Evolution Models to AGE-PRO Observations
• How to form compact & other longer-lived planet-induced vortices: VSI, planet migration, or re-triggers, but not feedback
• Bipolar molecular outflow of the very low-mass star Par-Lup3-4
• Dust mass in protoplanetary disks with porous dust opacities
• Planet formation and disk mass dependence in a pebble-driven scenario for low mass stars
• Characterization of debris disks observed with SPHERE
• Double-peaked OI profile: a likely signature of the gaseous ring around KH 15D
• Observing Circumplanetary Disks with METIS
• Constraining giant planet formation with synthetic ALMA images of the Solar System's natal protoplanetary disk
• High-resolution Pan-STARRS and SMA observations of IRAS 23077+6707: A giant edge-on protoplanetary disk
• Early Planet Formation in Embedded Disks (eDisk). XI. A high-resolution view toward the BHR 71 Class 0 protostellar wide binary
• Magnetic Spirals in Accretion Flows Originated from Misaligned Magnetic Field
• Intermediate mass T Tauri disk masses and a comparison to their Herbig disk descendants
• A study of accretion and disk diagnostics in the NGC 2264 cluster
• COol Companions ON Ultrawide orbiTS (COCONUTS). III. A Very Red L6 Benchmark Brown Dwarf around a Young M5 Dwarf
• Multi-frequency analysis of the ALMA and VLA high resolution continuum observations of the substructured disc around CI Tau. Preference for sub-mm-sized low-porosity amorphous carbon grains
• The evolution of protoplanetary disc radii and disc masses in star-forming regions
• PENELLOPE V. The magnetospheric structure and the accretion variability of the classical T Tauri star HM Lup
• On Secular Gravitational Instability in Vertically Stratified Disks
• ALMA Observations of Asymmetric Molecular Gas Emission from a Protoplanetary Disk in the Orion Nebula
• ALMA Observations of the Inner Cavity in the Protoplanetary Disk around Sz 84
• Binary energy source of the HH 250 outflow and its circumstellar environment
• Gas distribution in ODISEA sources from ALMA long-baseline observations in ${}^{12}$CO(2-1)
• SEDBYS: A python-based SED Builder for Young Stars
• A Large Double-ring Disk around the Taurus M Dwarf J04124068+2438157
• An Incipient Debris Disk in the Chamaeleon I Cloud
• Hidden under a warm blanket: If planets existed in protostellar disks, they would hardly produce observable substructures
• Forming rocky exoplanets around K-dwarf stars
• Small and Close-In Planets are Uncommon Around A-type Stars
• Modeling the arc and ring structures in the HD 143006 disk
• Accretion of aerodynamically large pebbles
• Investigating the Future Potential of an Upgraded ALMA to Image Planet Forming Disks at Sub-au Scales
• ISO-ChaI 52: a weakly-accreting young stellar object with a dipper light curve
• A complete Herbig disk mass survey in Orion
• The evolution of the flux-size relationship in protoplanetary discs by viscous evolution and radial pebble drift
• The evolution of the $M_{\mathrm{d}}-M_{\star }$ and $\dot{M}-M_{\star }$ correlations traces protoplanetary disc dispersal
• Planet-forming disks and their environment across regions and time from the full NIR census
• Exploring the Grain Properties in the Disk of HL Tau with an Evolutionary Model
• The effect of stellar evolution on dispersal of protoplanetary disks: Disk fraction in star-forming regions
• Probabilistic Classification of Infrared-selected targets for SPHEREx mission: In search of YSOs
• The Radial Profile of Dust Grain Size in the Protoplanetary Disk of DS Tau
• Evidence of a Disk-wind Origin for Fluorescent H${}_2$ in Classical T Tauri Stars
• Dust Drift Timescales in Protoplanetary Disks at the Cusp of Gravitational Instability
• Constraining protoplanetary disks with exoplanetary dynamics: Kepler-419 as an example
• Zero Age Planetary Orbit of Gas Giant Planets Revisited: Reinforcement of the Link with Stellar Metallicity
• The emergence of the Md-Macc correlation in the MHD wind scenario
• Dancing on the Grain: Variety of CO and its isotopologue fluxes as a result of surface chemistry and T Tauri disk properties
• The survivorship bias of protoplanetary disc populations
• Accretion and Outflows in Young Stars with CUBES
• ALMA detections of circumstellar disks in the giant Hii region M17. Probing the intermediate- to high-mass pre-main-sequence population
• Timescales diagnostics for saving viscous and MHD-driven dusty discs from external photoevaporation
• The Disk Population in a Distant Massive Protocluster
• Molecules with ALMA at Planet-forming Scales. XX. The Massive Disk Around GM Aurigae
• Survey of Orion Disks with ALMA (SODA) III: Disks in wide binary systems in L1641 and L1647
• Imaging the water snowline in protostellar envelopes
• Compact CO emission and no evidence of radial drift. ALMA observations of the faintest planet-forming disks in Lupus
• Dippers from TESS Full-frame Images. II. Spectroscopic Characterization of Four Young Dippers
• Constraining protoplanetary disc mass using the GI wiggle
• A SPHERE survey of self-shadowed planet-forming disks
• Surveys of clumps, cores, and condensations in Cygnus-X: Searching for Keplerian disks on the scale of 500 au
• Gravito-turbulent bi-fluid protoplanetary discs: 1. An analytical perspective to stratification
• A tension between dust and gas radii: the role of substructures and external photoevaporation in protoplanetary disks
• Gaps and Rings: A Near-Universal Trait of Extended Protoplanetary Discs
• The Mass Budgets and Spatial Scales of Exoplanet Systems and Protoplanetary Disks
• Measuring Dust Masses of Protoplanetary Disks in Serpens and L1641/L1647 with ALMA
• The influence of tight binaries on proto-planetary disk masses
• Characterization of the dust content in the ring around Sz 91: indications for planetesimal formation?
• Rapid and Predictive Planet Population Synthesis Model (RAPPS) I. Upgraded model and resulting synthetic populations
• The VLA/ALMA Nascent Disk and Multiplicity (VANDAM) Survey of Orion Protostars VI. Insights from Radiative Transfer Modeling
• The formation of planetary systems with SPICA
• Identification and spectroscopic characterization of 128 new Herbig stars
• Protoplanetary Disk Chemistry
• The morphology of CSCha circumbinary disk suggesting the existence of a Saturn-mass planet
• Modelling the secular evolution of proto-planetary disc dust sizes -- A comparison between the viscous and magnetic wind case
• Planet formation in intermediate-separation binary systems
• MHD disc winds can reproduce fast disc dispersal and the correlation between accretion rate and disc mass in Lupus
• Constraining the properties of the potential embedded planets in the disk around HD 100546