The Occurrence and Mass Distribution of Close-in Super-Earths, Neptunes, and Jupiters

Abstract

The questions of how planets form and how common Earth-like planets are can be addressed by measuring the distribution of exoplanet masses and orbital periods. We report the occurrence rate of close-in planets (with orbital periods less than 50 days) based on precise Doppler measurements of 166 Sun-like stars. We measured increasing planet occurrence with decreasing planet mass (M). Extrapolation of a power law mass distribution fitted to our measurements, df/dlogM = 0.39M^-0.48, predicts that 23% of stars harbor a close-in Earth-mass planet (ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 Earth masses). Theoretical models of planet formation predict a deficit of planets in the domain from 5 to 30 Earth masses and with orbital periods less than 50 days. This region of parameter space is in fact well populated, implying that such models need substantial revision.

First published in Science on Oct 29, 2010 (vol. 330, pp. 653-655). Includes supporting online material. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/330/6004/653

References in corpus (4)

• Five Planets Orbiting 55 Cancri
• The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets. XIII. A planetary system with 3 Super-Earths (4.2, 6.9, & 9.2 Earth masses)
• A Search for Multi-Planet Systems Using the Hobby-Eberly Telescope
• The Jupiter Twin HD 154345b

Cited by in corpus (177)

• One or more bound planets per Milky Way star from microlensing observations
• Astrometric exoplanet detection with Gaia
• The NASA-UC-UH Eta-Earth Program: IV. A Low-mass Planet Orbiting an M Dwarf 3.6 PC from Earth
• The Exoplanet Mass-Ratio Function from the MOA-II Survey: Discovery of a Break and Likely Peak at a Neptune Mass
• Gaia Data Release 3: Stellar multiplicity, a teaser for the hidden treasure
• Make Super-Earths, Not Jupiters: Accreting Nebular Gas onto Solid Cores at 0.1 AU and Beyond
• Hints for a Turnover at the Snow Line in the Giant Planet Occurrence Rate
• Modeling Kepler transit light curves as false positives: Rejection of blend scenarios for Kepler-9, and validation of Kepler-9d, a super-Earth-size planet in a multiple system
• A chemical model for the atmosphere of hot Jupiters
• 197 Candidates and 104 Validated Planets in K2's First Five Fields
• Planets Around Low-Mass Stars (PALMS). IV. The Outer Architecture of M Dwarf Planetary Systems
• PASTIS: Bayesian extrasolar planet validation. I. General framework, models, and performance
• SOPHIE velocimetry of Kepler transit candidates VII. A false-positive rate of 35% for Kepler close-in giant exoplanet candidates
• A nearby M star with three transiting super-Earths discovered by K2
• The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs -- Planet occurrence rates from a subsample of 71 stars
• The nature and origins of sub-Neptune size planets
• Hot super-Earths and giant planet cores from different migration histories
• The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). II. Planetary population of solar-like stars and overview of statistical results
• Influence of Stellar Multiplicity On Planet Formation. II. Planets Are Less Common in Multiple-Star Systems with Separations Smaller than 1500 AU
• Global Models of Planet Formation and Evolution
• An ALMA Survey of CO isotopologue emission from Protoplanetary Disks in Chamaeleon I
• A giant exoplanet orbiting a very low-mass star challenges planet formation models
• Characterization of exoplanets from their formation III: The statistics of planetary luminosities
• Synthesizing Exoplanet Demographics from Radial Velocity and Microlensing Surveys, II: The Frequency of Planets Orbiting M Dwarfs
• Planets Transiting Non-Eclipsing Binaries
• Volatile Delivery to Planets from Water-rich Planetesimals around Low Mass Stars
• Gas giant planets as dynamical barriers to inward-migrating super-Earths
• The Mass Budget of Planet Forming Discs: Isolating the Epoch of Planetesimal Formation
• A stellar mass dependence of structured disks: a possible link with exoplanet demographics
• Occurrence and core-envelope structure of 1--4x Earth-size planets around Sun-like stars
• 3-D selection of 167 sub-stellar companions to nearby stars
• The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). III. Warm super-Earths and cold Jupiters: A weak occurrence correlation, but with a strong architecture-composition link
• Evidence for a spectroscopic direct detection of reflected light from 51 Peg b
• SOPHIE velocimetry of Kepler transit candidates XII. KOI-1257 b: a highly eccentric three-month period transiting exoplanet
• Miniature Exoplanet Radial Velocity Array (MINERVA) I. Design, Commissioning, and First Science Results
• ZASPE: A Code to Measure Stellar Atmospheric Parameters and their Covariance from Spectra
• Testing exoplanet evaporation with multi-transiting systems
• The BEBOP radial-velocity survey for circumbinary planets I. Eight years of CORALIE observations of 47 single-line eclipsing binaries and abundance constraints on the masses of circumbinary planets
• Terrestrial Planet Formation in the Presence of Migrating Super-earths
• A Tale of Planet Formation: From Dust to Planets
• The California Planet Survey IV: A Planet Orbiting the Giant Star HD 145934 and Updates to Seven Systems with Long-Period Planets
• Three Super-Earths Orbiting HD 7924
• Architectures of Planetary Systems and Implications for their Formation
• Creating the Radius Gap without Mass Loss
• The SPHERE infrared survey for exoplanets (SHINE)- I Sample definition and target characterization
• Compact planetary systems perturbed by an inclined companion: II. Stellar spin-orbit evolution
• Solar System Physics for Exoplanet Research
• A Joint Mass-Radius-Period Distribution of Exoplanets
• A search for a 5th planet around HR 8799 using the star-hopping RDI technique at VLT/SPHERE
• A search for planetary eclipses of white dwarfs in the Pan-STARRS1 medium-deep fields
• The HADES RV Programme with HARPS-N@TNG II. Data treatment and simulations
• First limits on the occurrence rate of short-period planets orbiting brown dwarfs
• Astrometric planet search around southern ultracool dwarfs I: First results, including parallaxes of 20 M8-L2 dwarfs
• TOI-1452 b: SPIRou and TESS reveal a super-Earth in a temperate orbit transiting an M4 dwarf
• The Photoeccentric Effect and Proto-Hot Jupiters II. KOI-1474.01, a candidate eccentric planet perturbed by an unseen companion
• TOI-257b (HD 19916b): A Warm sub-Saturn Orbiting an Evolved F-type Star
• Perturbation of Compact Planetary Systems by Distant Giant Planets
• The Dawes Review 3: The Atmospheres of Extrasolar Planets and Brown Dwarfs
• SOPHIE velocimetry of Kepler transit candidates. XV. KOI-614b, KOI-206b, and KOI-680b: a massive warm Jupiter orbiting a G0 metallic dwarf and two highly inflated planets with a distant companion around evolved F-type stars
• Hubble Space Telescope search for the transit of the Earth-mass exoplanet Alpha Centauri Bb
• A detailed analysis of the Gl 486 planetary system
• The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs -- LP 714-47b (TOI 442.01): Populating the Neptune desert
• Early Insights for Atmospheric Retrievals of Exoplanets using JWST Transit Spectroscopy
• Five New Exoplanets Orbiting Three Metal-Rich, Massive Stars: Two-Planet Systems Including Long-Period Planets, and an Eccentric Planet
• JWST/NIRSpec Observations of the Planetary Mass Companion TWA 27B
• Orbital misalignment of the super-Earth $\pi$ Men c with the spin of its star
• Transmission spectroscopy for the warm sub-Neptune HD3167c: evidence for molecular absorption and a possible high metallicity atmosphere
• A dynamical study on the habitability of terrestrial exoplanets II: The super Earth HD 40307 g
• Migration of Jupiter mass planets in low viscosity discs
• Super-Earths and Earth-like Exoplanets
• The Pan-Pacific Planet Search VII: The most eccentric planet orbiting a giant star
• Gaia 19ajj: A Young Star Brightening Due to Enhanced Accretion + Reduced Extinction
• Forming Diverse Super-Earth Systems in Situ
• Constraints on the occurrence and distribution of 1--20 \mj\ companions to stars at separations of 5--5000\,au from a compilation of direct imaging surveys
• Target Prioritization and Observing Strategies for the NEID Earth Twin Survey
• Secular Effects of Tidal Damping in Compact Planetary Systems
• The masses of retired A stars with asteroseismology: Kepler and K2 observations of exoplanet hosts
• The Preservation of Super Earths and the Emergence of Gas Giants after Their Progenitor Cores have Entered the Pebble Isolation Phase
• The Fundamental Connections Between the Solar System and Exoplanetary Science
• Planetary Population Synthesis and the Emergence of Four Classes of Planetary System Architectures
• Synthesizing Exoplanet Demographics from Radial Velocity and Microlensing Surveys, I: Methodology
• Exomoon Habitability and Tidal Evolution in Low-Mass Star Systems
• A super-Earth and a mini-Neptune near the 2:1 MMR straddling the radius valley around the nearby mid-M dwarf TOI-2096
• Fly-by encounters between two planetary systems II: Exploring the interactions of diverse planetary system architectures
• The Pan-Pacific Planet Search VI: Giant planets orbiting HD 86950 and HD 222076
• Three Temperate Neptunes Orbiting Nearby Stars
• SOPHIE velocimetry of Kepler transit candidates XIV. A joint photometric, spectroscopic, and dynamical analysis of the Kepler-117 system
• HD 5388 b is a 69 M_Jup companion instead of a planet
• The high energy universe at ultra-high resolution: the power and promise of X-ray interferometry
• Probing the impact of varied migration and gas accretion rates for the formation of giant planets in the pebble accretion scenario
• Embryo impacts and gas giant mergers II: Diversity of Hot Jupiters' internal structure
• Spitzer Reveals Evidence of Molecular Absorption in the Atmosphere of the Hot Neptune LTT 9979b
• Solar-to-supersolar sodium and oxygen absolute abundances for a "hot Saturn" orbiting a metal-rich star
• HD 191939: Three Sub-Neptunes Transiting a Sun-like Star Only 54 pc Away
• Kepler-167e as a Probe of the Formation Histories of Cold Giants with Inner Super-Earths
• Circumstellar disks and planets. Science cases for next-generation optical/infrared long-baseline interferometers
• Radial Velocity Discovery of an Eccentric Jovian World Orbiting at 18 au
• Sculpting the sub-Saturn Occurrence Rate via Atmospheric Mass Loss
• Unified simulations of planetary formation and atmospheric evolution: Effects of pebble accretion, giant impacts, and stellar irradiations on super-Earth formation
• The Benefits and Harms of Transmitting Into Space
• Revised orbits of the two nearest Jupiters
• SPICES: Spectro-Polarimetric Imaging and Characterization of Exoplanetary Systems
• Capture and evolution of dust in planetary mean-motion resonances: a fast, semi-analytic method for generating resonantly trapped disk images
• Occurrence rates of small planets from HARPS: Focus on the Galactic context
• Role of magma oceans in controlling carbon and oxygen of sub-Neptune atmospheres
• OGLE-2008-BLG-355Lb: A Massive Planet around A Late type Star
• HD 28109 hosts a trio of transiting Neptunian planets including a near-resonant pair, confirmed by ASTEP from Antarctica
• Chains of Planets in Mean Motion Resonances Arising from Oligarchic Growth
• On spectroscopic phase-curve retrievals: H2 dissociation and thermal inversion in the atmosphere of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-103 b
• The Bimodal Distribution in Exoplanet Radii: Considering Varying Core Compositions and ${\mathrm{H}}_2$ Envelope's Sizes
• Kepler-1656b's Extreme Eccentricity: Signature of a Gentle Giant
• Unified simulations of planetary formation and atmospheric evolution II: Rapid disk clearing by photoevaporation yields low-mass super-Earth atmospheres
• An extremely low-density and temperate giant exoplanet
• A Theoretical Framework for the Mass Distribution of Gas Giant Planets forming through the Core Accretion Paradigm
• Global Analysis of the TRAPPIST Ultra-Cool Dwarf Transit Survey
• The circulation of dust in protoplanetary discs and the initial conditions of planet formation
• Very Low-Mass Stellar and Substellar Companions to Solar-like Stars From MARVELS VI: A Giant Planet and a Brown Dwarf Candidate in a Close Binary System HD 87646
• Dust Accumulation near the Magnetospheric Truncation of Protoplanetary Discs around T Tauri Stars
• Predicting multiple planet stability and habitable zone companions in the TESS era
• Discovery of a White Dwarf Companion to HD 159062
• The GAPS Programme at TNG XL: A puffy and warm Neptune-sized planet and an outer Neptune-mass candidate orbiting the solar-type star TOI-1422
• Terrestrial Planets Formation under Migration: the Systems near 4:2:1 Mean Motion Resonance
• In Situ Models for Planet Assembly around Cool stars
• TESS-Keck Survey XIV: Two giant exoplanets from the Distant Giants Survey
• Two Planets Straddling the Habitable Zone of The Nearby K Dwarf Gl 414A
• Debris Disks in Multi-Planet Systems: Are Our Inferences Compromised by Unseen Planets?
• Super-Earths as Failed Cores in Orbital Migration Traps
• EXPRES IV: Two Additional Planets Orbiting $\rho$ Coronae Borealis Reveal Uncommon System Architecture
• Exoplanet atmosphere evolution: emulation with neural networks
• The Demographics of Exoplanets
• Minimal conditions for survival of technological civilizations in the face of stellar evolution
• The Demographics of Wide-Separation Planets
• Confirmation of the Long-Period Planet Orbiting Gliese 411 and the Detection of a New Planet Candidate
• A multi-planetary system orbiting the early-M dwarf TOI-1238
• Formation of Super-Earths by Tidally-Forced Turbulence
• Rocky histories: The effect of high excitations on the formation of rocky planets
• Binary stripping as a plausible origin of correlated pairs of extreme trans-Neptunian objects
• Atmospheric Characterization via Broadband Color Filters on the PLAnetary Transits and Oscillations of stars (PLATO) Mission
• Radial-velocity search and statistical studies for short-period planets in the Pleiades open cluster
• An Early Catalog of Planet Hosting Multiple Star Systems of Order Three and Higher
• Accounting for stellar activity signals in radial-velocity data by using Change Point Detection techniques
• The need for a public forecast of stellar activity to optimise exoplanet radial velocity detections & transmission spectroscopy
• Radial velocity confirmation of a hot super-Neptune discovered by TESS with a warm Saturn-mass companion
• Unveiling the Planet Population at Birth
• The California Legacy Survey II. Occurrence of Giant Planets Beyond the Ice line
• Imaging the Dusty Substructures due to Terrestrial Planets in Planet-forming Disks with ALMA and the Next Generation Very Large Array
• Hiding Planets Near and Far: The Parameter Space of Hidden Companions for Known Planetary Systems
• Formation of super-Earths and mini-Neptunes from rings of planetesimals
• A Simple Depth of Search Metric for Exoplanet Imaging Surveys
• ExoplANNET: A deep learning algorithm to detect and identify planetary signals in radial velocity data
• Mutual Occurrence Ratio of Planets. I. New Clues to Reveal Origins of Hot- and Warm-Jupiter from the RV Sample
• Relative occurrence rates of terrestrial planets orbiting FGK stars
• Planet formation: key mechanisms and global models
• Forming rocky exoplanets around K-dwarf stars
• Data Reduction Pipeline of the TOU Optical Very High Resolution Spectrograph and Its sub-m/s Performance
• A low-mass sub-Neptune planet transiting the bright active star HD 73344
• Planet-forming disks and their environment across regions and time from the full NIR census
• SIOUX project: a simultaneous multiband camera for exoplanet atmospheres studies
• An improved correction of radial-velocity systematic for the SOPHIE spectrograph
• Planetary population synthesis
• Precise Masses and Orbits for Nine Radial Velocity Exoplanets
• The architecture of multi-planet systems as a tracer of their formation mechanisms
• Halting Migration in Magnetospherically Sculpted Protoplanetary Disks
• Stacked Periodograms as a Probe of Exoplanetary Populations
• Stellar statistics along the ecliptic and the impact on the K2 mission concept
• Ohmic dissipation during the formation of super-Earth
• The California Legacy Survey I. A Catalog of 178 Planets from Precision Radial Velocity Monitoring of 719 Nearby Stars over Three Decades
• The Mass Budgets and Spatial Scales of Exoplanet Systems and Protoplanetary Disks
• A search for transit timing variations in the transiting hot Jupiter systems HIP 65, NGTS-6, NGTS-10 and WASP-173
• Effects of Self-gravity on Mass-loss of the Post-impact Super-Earths
• The SATCHEL pipeline: A general tool for data classified through citizen science
• Inferring planet occurrence rates from radial velocities
• POSEIDON II: The Anti-Aligned Orbit of the Warm Neptune TOI-1710 A b
• Re-evaluating Hot Jupiter WASP-12b: An Update
• BEBOP II: Sensitivity to sub-Saturn circumbinary planets using radial-velocities
• The California Legacy Survey III. On The Shoulders of (Some) Giants: The Relationship between Inner Small Planets and Outer Massive Planets
• In situ formation of super-Earth/sub-Neptune driven by the planetary rotation