Architecture and Dynamics of Kepler's Candidate Multiple Transiting Planet Systems

Abstract

About one-third of the ~1200 transiting planet candidates detected in the first four months of \ik data are members of multiple candidate systems. There are 115 target stars with two candidate transiting planets, 45 with three, 8 with four, and one each with five and six. We characterize the dynamical properties of these candidate multi-planet systems. The distribution of observed period ratios shows that the vast majority of candidate pairs are neither in nor near low-order mean motion resonances. Nonetheless, there are small but statistically significant excesses of candidate pairs both in resonance and spaced slightly too far apart to be in resonance, particularly near the 2:1 resonance. We find that virtually all candidate systems are stable, as tested by numerical integrations that assume a nominal mass-radius relationship. Several considerations strongly suggest that the vast majority of these multi-candidate systems are true planetary systems. Using the observed multiplicity frequencies, we find that a single population of planetary systems that matches the higher multiplicities underpredicts the number of singly-transiting systems. We provide constraints on the true multiplicity and mutual inclination distribution of the multi-candidate systems, revealing a population of systems with multiple super-Earth-size and Neptune-size planets with low to moderate mutual inclinations.

27 pages, 19 figures, 8 tables, emulateapj style. Accepted to ApJ. This version includes several minor changes to the text

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• Signature of Planetary Mergers on Stellar Spins
• Circumstellar disks and planets. Science cases for next-generation optical/infrared long-baseline interferometers
• Stellar Oblateness versus Distant Giants in Exciting Kepler Planet Mutual Inclinations
• Unified simulations of planetary formation and atmospheric evolution: Effects of pebble accretion, giant impacts, and stellar irradiations on super-Earth formation
• Planet Hunters: New Kepler planet candidates from analysis of quarter 2
• On the Spin States of Habitable Zone Exoplanets Around M Dwarfs: The Effect of a Near-Resonant Companion
• Unveiling the internal structure and formation history of the three planets transiting HIP 29442 (TOI-469) with CHEOPS
• Intra-system uniformity: a natural outcome of dynamical sculpting
• Hidden Worlds: Dynamical Architecture Predictions of Undetected Planets in Multi-planet Systems and Applications to TESS Systems
• A possible correlation between planetary radius and orbital period for small planets
• Edge-of-the-Multis: Evidence for a Transition in the Outer Architectures of Compact Multi-Planet Systems
• Earths in Other Solar Systems N-body simulations: the Role of Orbital Damping in Reproducing the Kepler Planetary Systems
• Migration and Growth of Protoplanetary Embryos II: Emergence of Proto-Gas-Giants Cores versus Super Earths' Progenitor
• On the Nature of Small Planets around the Coolest Kepler Stars
• Formation of Close-in Super-Earths by Giant Impacts: Effects of Initial Eccentricities and Inclinations of Protoplanets
• A framework for the architecture of exoplanetary systems. II. Nature versus nurture: Emergent formation pathways of architecture classes
• TESS Investigation -- Demographics of Young Exoplanets (TI-DYE) II: a second giant planet in the 17-Myr system HIP 67522
• Bridging the Planet Radius Valley: Stellar Clustering as a Key Driver for Turning Sub-Neptunes into Super-Earths
• Formation of Terrestrial Planets
• A search for planetary companions around 800 pulsars from the Jodrell Bank pulsar timing programme
• Disrupting Primordial Planet Signatures: The Close Encounter of Two Single-Planet Exosystems in the Galactic Disc
• TRACE: a code for Time-Reversible Astrophysical Close Encounters
• Long-term and large-scale hydrodynamical simulations of migrating planets
• Planets larger than Neptune have elevated eccentricities
• The dynamical evolution of transiting planetary systems including a realistic collision prescription
• How the presence of a gas giant affects the formation of mean-motion resonances between two low-mass planets in a locally isothermal gaseous disc
• Dynamics and Origins of the Near-Resonant Kepler Planets
• CKS IX: Revisiting the Minimum-Mass Extrasolar Nebula with Precise Stellar Parameters
• Small Inner Companions of Warm Jupiters: Lifetimes and Legacies
• K2-19b and c are in a 3:2 Commensurability but out of Resonance: A Challenge to Planet Assembly by Convergent Migration
• Stochasticity & Predictability in Terrestrial Planet Formation
• Trapping in three-planet resonances during gas-driven migration
• Two super-Earths at the edge of the habitable zone of the nearby M dwarf TOI-2095
• Kepler Object of Interest Network I. First results combining ground and space-based observations of Kepler systems with transit timing variations
• Examining the Radius Valley: a Machine Learning Approach
• Near Mean-motion Resonances in the Systems Observed by Kepler: Affected by Mass Accretion and Type I Migration
• On the potentially dramatic history of the super-Earth rho 55 Cancri e
• Orbital Architectures of Kepler Multis From Dynamical Instabilities
• A Five-Planet Resonant Chain: Reevaluation of the Kepler-80 System
• Transit least-squares survey - I. Discovery and validation of an Earth-sized planet in the four-planet system K2-32 near the 1:2:5:7 resonance
• A Likely Detection of a Two-Planet System in a Low Magnification Microlensing Event
• Interferometric Evidence for Quantum Heated Particles in the Inner Region of Protoplanetary Disks around Herbig Stars
• Visual Analysis and Demographics of Kepler Transit Timing Variations
• Unified simulations of planetary formation and atmospheric evolution II: Rapid disk clearing by photoevaporation yields low-mass super-Earth atmospheres
• ESPRESSO Mass determination of TOI-263b: An extreme inhabitant of the brown dwarf desert
• Transit Detection of a "Starshade" at the Inner Lagrange Point of an Exoplanet
• Transit Probabilities in Secularly Evolving Planetary Systems
• Migration and Growth of Protoplanetary Embryos III: Mass and Metallicity Dependence for FGKM main-sequence stars
• Exciting the TTV Phases of Resonant Sub-Neptunes
• Prospecting for exo-Earths in multiple planet systems with a gas giant
• Resonant Trapping of Stars by Merging Massive Black Hole Binaries
• Resonant and Ultra-short-period Planet Systems are at Opposite Ends of the Exoplanet Age Distribution
• Asteroid impacts on terrestrial planets: The effects of super-Earths and the role of the ${\nu }_6$ resonance
• Two Super-Earths in the 3:2 MMR around KOI-1599
• HADES RV Programme with HARPS-N at TNG VI. GJ 3942 b behind dominant activity signals
• Kepler's Missing Planets
• Solar System Moons as Analogs for Compact Exoplanetary Systems
• The Impact of Stellar Clustering on the Observed Multiplicity and Orbital Periods of Planetary Systems
• The resilience of Kepler systems to stellar obliquity
• Non-Trivial Oblique Spin Equilibria of Super-Earths in Multi-planetary Systems
• TESS Observations of Kepler systems with Transit Timing Variations
• Higher Compact Multiple Occurrence Around Metal-Poor M-Dwarfs and Late K-Dwarfs
• Modeling the Formation of the Family of the Dwarf Planet Haumea
• It takes two planets in resonance to tango around K2-146
• The Discovery of the Long-Period, Eccentric Planet Kepler-88 d and System Characterization with Radial Velocities and Photodynamical Analysis
• Stability Constrained Characterization of Multiplanet Systems
• The LHS 1678 System: Two Earth-Sized Transiting Planets and an Astrometric Companion Orbiting an M Dwarf Near the Convective Boundary at 20 pc
• Orbital stability of compact three-planet systems, I: Dependence of system lifetimes on initial orbital separations and longitudes
• Identify Light-Curve Signals with Deep Learning Based Object Detection Algorithm. I. Transit Detection
• Predicting Planets in Kepler Multi-Planet Systems
• APOSTLE: Eleven Transit Observations of TrES-3b
• Predicting multiple planet stability and habitable zone companions in the TESS era
• Updated Catalog of Kepler Planet Candidates: Focus on Accuracy and Orbital Periods
• Promoted Mass Growth of Multiple, Distant Giant Planets through Pebble Accretion and Planet-Planet Collision
• A hot mini-Neptune in the radius valley orbiting solar analogue HD 110113
• Multiplanet systems in inviscid discs can avoid forming resonant chains
• Planetary candidates transiting cool dwarf stars from Campaigns 12 to 15 of K2
• Properties of the single Jovian planet population and the pursuit of Solar system analogues
• Radial migration of gap-opening planets in protoplanetary disks. II. The case of a planet pair
• Shaping HR8799's outer dust belt with an unseen planet
• Scaling K2. III. Comparable Planet Occurrence in the FGK Samples of Campaign 5 and Kepler
• Consequences of tidal interaction between disks and orbiting protoplanets for the evolution of multi-planet systems with architecture resembling that of Kepler 444
• Decoupling Phase Variations in Multi-Planet Systems
• TTV-determined Masses for Warm Jupiters and their Close Planetary Companions
• Dynamical Evolution of Closely Packed Multiple Planetary Systems Subject to Atmospheric Mass-Loss
• The instability mechanism of compact multiplanet systems
• On the Orbital Spacing Pattern of Kepler Multiple Planet Systems
• A Flat Inner Disk Model as an Alternative to the Kepler Dichotomy in the Q1 to Q16 Planet Population
• Type II migration strikes back -- An old paradigm for planet migration in discs
• Using HARPS-N to characterise the long-period planets in the PH-2 and Kepler-103 systems
• Hot planets around cool stars -- two short-period mini-Neptunes transiting the late K-dwarf TOI-1260
• No Metallicity Correlation Associated with the Kepler Dichotomy
• Predictions of planet detections with near infrared radial velocities in the up-coming SPIRou Legacy Survey-Planet Search
• Relativistic Dynamical Stability Criterion of Multi-Planet Systems with a Distant Companion
• Dynamics and Collisional Evolution of Closely Packed Planetary Systems
• In Situ Models for Planet Assembly around Cool stars
• Terrestrial Planets Formation under Migration: the Systems near 4:2:1 Mean Motion Resonance
• Exoplanetary Geophysics -- An Emerging Discipline
• SOPHIE velocimetry of Kepler transit candidates: X KOI-142c: first radial velocity confirmation of a non-transiting exoplanet discovered by transit timing
• Effects of Planetesimal Scattering: Explaining the Observed Offsets from Period Ratios 3:2 and 2:1
• Size evolution of close-in super-Earths through giant impacts and photoevaporation
• The Dynamics of Tightly-packed Planetary Systems in the Presence of an Outer Planet: case studies using Kepler-11 and Kepler-90
• The scattering outcomes of Kepler circumbinary planets: planet mass ratio
• Two planetary systems with transiting Earth-size and super-Earth planets orbiting late-type dwarf stars
• Atmospheric mass loss of extrasolar planets orbiting magnetically active host stars
• Global Modeling of Nebulae With Particle Growth, Drift, and Evaporation Fronts. II. The Influence of Porosity on Solids Evolution
• Resonances of Multiple Exoplanets and Implications for Their Formation
• In Situ and Ex Situ Formation Models of Kepler 11 Planets
• The Demographics of Exoplanets
• A systematic validation of hot Neptunes in TESS data
• When the Peas Jump around the Pod: How Stellar Clustering Affects the Observed Correlations between Planet Properties in Multi-Planet Systems
• Observations of the Kepler Field with TESS: Predictions for Planet Yield and Observable Features
• Departure from the Exact Location of Mean Motion Resonances Induced by the Gas Disk in the Systems Observed by Kepler
• A Pluto-Charon Sonata: The Dynamical Architecture of the Circumbinary Satellite System
• K2-138 g: Spitzer Spots a Sixth Planet for the Citizen Science System
• A collage of small planets from the Lick Carnegie Exoplanet Survey : Exploring the super-Earth and sub-Neptune mass regime
• Host Star Dependence of Small Planet Mass-Radius Distributions
• Limits on the number of primordial Scattered Disk objects at Pluto mass and higher from the absence of their dynamical signatures on the present day trans-Neptunian Populations
• Making Terrestrial Planets: High Temperatures, FU Orionis Outbursts, Earth, and Planetary System Architectures
• Near Mean Motion Resonance of Terrestrial Planet Pair Induced by Giant Planet: Application to Kepler-68 System
• Transits Probabilities Around Hypervelocity and Runaway Stars
• TESS and CHEOPS Discover Two Warm Sub-Neptunes Transiting the Bright K-dwarf HD 15906
• Physical Properties and Impact Parameter Variations of Kepler Planets from Analytic Light Curve Modeling
• On the Degree of Dynamical Packing in the Kepler Multi-planet Systems
• Connecting Planetary Composition with Formation
• There might be giants: unseen Jupiter-mass planets as sculptors of tightly-packed planetary systems
• TOI-1296b and TOI-1298b observed with TESS and SOPHIE: Two hot Saturn-mass exoplanets with different densities around metal-rich stars
• Architecture of planetary systems predicted from protoplanetary disks observed with ALMA I: mass of the possible planets embedded in the dust gap
• Disentangling the parameter space: The role of planet multiplicity in triggering dynamical instabilities on planetary systems around white dwarfs
• Below One Earth Mass: The Detection, Formation, and Properties of Subterrestrial Worlds
• Systematic search for long-term transit duration changes in Kepler transiting planets
• Planets in Open Clusters Detectable by Kepler
• The Stability of Tidal Equilibrium for Hierarchical Star-Planet-Moon Systems
• Planet Hunters TESS III: two transiting planets around the bright G dwarf HD 152843
• Transit Duration Variations in Multi-Planet Systems
• Resilient habitability of nearby exoplanet systems
• The McDonald Accelerating Stars Survey (MASS): Architecture of the Ancient Five-Planet Host System Kepler-444
• On the origin of the eccentricity dichotomy displayed by compact super-Earths: dynamical heating by cold giants
• Migration traps as the root cause of the Kepler dichotomy
• The distribution of mutual inclinations arising from the stellar quadrupole moment
• How the planetary eccentricity influences the pebble isolation mass
• TOI-1749: an M dwarf with a Trio of Planets including a Near-Resonant Pair
• Starspots and spin-orbit alignment for Kepler cool host stars
• Outer Architecture of Kepler-11: Constraints from Coplanarity
• Periodic orbits in the 1:2:3 resonant chain and their impact on the orbital dynamics of the Kepler-51 planetary system
• Characterisation of TOI-406 as showcase of the THIRSTEE program: A 2-planet system straddling the M-dwarf density gap
• Collisions of Terrestrial Worlds: The Occurrence of Extreme Mid-Infrared Excesses around Low-Mass Field Stars
• TOI-712: a system of adolescent mini-Neptunes extending to the habitable zone
• On planetary systems as ordered sequences
• Observational constraints on the formation and evolution of Neptune-class exoplanets
• Quantifying the Similarity of Planetary System Architectures
• Inclination Dynamics of Resonant Planets under the Influence of an Inclined External Companion
• The multi-planet system TOI-421 -- A warm Neptune and a super puffy mini-Neptune transiting a G9 V star in a visual binary
• Earth-size planet formation in the habitable zone of circumbinary stars
• How the presence of a giant planet affects the outcome of terrestrial planet formation simulations
• The Efficiency of Geometric Samplers for Exoplanet Transit Timing Variation Models
• A Pair of Planets Likely in Mean-motion Resonance From Gravitational Microlensing
• Hiding Planets Near and Far: The Parameter Space of Hidden Companions for Known Planetary Systems
• Tidal Heating of Exomoons in Resonance and Implications for Detection
• A highly mutually-inclined, compact warm-Jupiter system KOI-984 ?
• The Impact of Stellar Clustering on the Observed Multiplicity of Super-Earth systems: Outside-in Cascade of Orbital Misalignments Initiated by Stellar Flybys
• Exploiting periodic orbits as dynamical clues for Kepler and K2 systems
• Re-analysing the dynamical stability of the HD 47366 planetary system
• Capture of satellites during planetary encounters A case study of the Neptunian moons Triton and Nereid
• Substructures in protoplanetary disks imprinted by compact planetary systems
• On the importance of wave planet interactions for the migration of two super-Earths embedded in a protoplanetary disk
• APOSTLE: Longterm Transit Monitoring and Stability Analysis of XO-2b
• Formation of super-Earths and mini-Neptunes from rings of planetesimals
• Global dynamics and architecture of the Kepler-444 system
• Setting the Stage for Habitable Planets
• Dynamical evolution of the Uranian satellite system I. From the 5/3 Ariel-Umbriel mean motion resonance to the present
• Radii, masses, and transit-timing variations of the three-planet system orbiting the naked-eye star TOI-396
• Light-Curve Evolution due to Secular Dynamics and the Vanishing Transits of KOI 120.01
• Two neighbours of the ultra-short-period Earth-sized planet K2-157 b in the warm Neptunian savanna
• Planet Occurrence: Doppler and Transit Surveys
• Planet formation: key mechanisms and global models
• A high mutual inclination system around KOI-134 revealed by transit timing variations
• The K2-24 planetary system revisited by CHEOPS
• Multi dust species inner rim in magnetized protoplanetary disks
• Forming rocky exoplanets around K-dwarf stars
• The orbital evolution of resonant chains of exoplanets incorporating circularisation produced by tidal interaction with the central star with application to the HD 158259 and EPIC 245950175 systems
• Using Kepler Candidates to Examine the Properties of Habitable Zone Exoplanets
• A New Planet in the Kepler-159 System From Transit Timing Variations
• Dynamical considerations for life in multihabitable planetary systems
• An upper limit for the growth of inner planets?
• Relative Habitability of Exoplanet Systems with Two Giant Planets
• TESS discovery of a super-Earth and two sub-Neptunes orbiting the bright, nearby, Sun-like star HD 22946
• A Transiting Super-Earth in the Radius Valley and An Outer Planet Candidate Around HD 307842
• Tidally Heated Sub-Neptunes, Refined Planetary Compositions, and Confirmation of a Third Planet in the TOI-1266 System
• Planets similar in size are often dissimilar in interior
• Earth-like planets hosting systems: Architecture and properties
• Detection of Laplace-resonant three-planet systems from transit timing variations
• Precise radial velocities of giant stars XIII. A second Jupiter orbiting in 4:3 resonance in the 7 CMa system
• K2, Spitzer, and TESS Transits of Four Sub-Neptune Exoplanets
• A joint effort to discover and characterize two resonant mini Neptunes around TOI-1803 with TESS, HARPS-N and CHEOPS
• Dynamical Architectures of S-type Transiting Planets in Binaries II: A Dichotomy in Orbital Alignment of Small Planets in Close Binary Systems
• Detecting planet pairs in mean motion resonances via astrometry method
• Analyses on a Relativistic Hierarchical Resonance with the Hamiltonian Approach
• The Exoplanet Edge: Planets Don't Induce Observable TTVs with a Dominant TTV Period Faster than Half their Orbital Period
• Diversities and similarities exhibited by multi-planetary systems and their architectures: I. Orbital spacings
• Planet Mass Function around M stars at 1-10 au: A Plethora of sub-Earth mass objects
• Earth-like planet predictor: A machine learning approach
• Combining Kepler and HARPS Occurrence Rates to Infer the Period-Mass-Radius Distribution of Super-Earths/Sub-Neptunes
• Evidence for a Non-Dichotomous Solution to the Kepler Dichotomy: Mutual Inclinations of Kepler Planetary Systems from Transit Duration Variations
• The extremely truncated circumstellar disc of V410 X-ray 1: a precursor to TRAPPIST-1?
• Mass Upper Bounds for Over 50 Kepler Planets Using Low-S/N Transit Timing Variations
• The stability of unevenly spaced planetary systems
• A Pair of Dynamically Interacting Sub-Neptunes Around TOI-6054
• A transiting rocky super-Earth and a non-transiting sub-Neptune orbiting the M dwarf TOI-771
• The discovery and legacy of Kepler's multi-transiting planetary systems
• Inward Migration of the TRAPPIST-1 Planets as Inferred From Their Water-Rich Compositions
• A distant brown dwarf coplanar to a warm Jupiter and a hot super-Earth
• The Mass Budgets and Spatial Scales of Exoplanet Systems and Protoplanetary Disks
• The Occurrence-weighted Median Planets Discovered by Transit Surveys Orbiting Solar-type Stars and Their Implications for Planet Formation and Evolution
• A Criterion for the Onset of Chaos in Compact, Eccentric Multiplanet Systems
• Destruction of "Peas in a Pod?" A Candidate Multi-planet System Around the Nearby, Bright Star, HD208487
• On the Ordering of Exoplanet Systems
• Numerical approach to second-order canonical perturbation theory in the planetary 3-body problem: Application to exoplanets
• Orbital stability of compact three-planet systems III. The role of three-body resonances
• Evidence that Planets in the Radius Gap Do Not Resemble Their Neighbors
• Variations in the Radius Distribution of Single- and Compact Multiple-transiting Planets
• KOI-3158: The oldest known system of terrestrial-size planets
• A Warm Massive Pair of Planets around TOI-1232 Revealed with Transit-timing Variations and Doppler Spectroscopy
• Dynamics of Two Planets near a 2:1 Resonance: Case Studies of Known and Synthetic Exosystems on a Grid of Initial Configurations
• TFAW survey II: 6 Newly Validated Planets and 13 Planet Candidates from K2
• Refining the Masses and Radii of the Star Kepler-33 and its Five Transiting Planets
• L 98-59: a Benchmark System of Small Planets for Future Atmospheric Characterization
• Rapid Formation of Super-Earths Around Low-Mass Stars
• The Dynamical Environment of Kepler-223 Planetary System
• Split Peas in a Pod: Intra-System Uniformity of Super-Earths and Sub-Neptunes
• K2-99 revisited: a non-inflated warm Jupiter, and a temperate giant planet on a 522-d orbit around a subgiant
• TOI-1518b: A Misaligned Ultra-hot Jupiter with Iron in its Atmosphere
• The tidal quality of the hot Jupiter WASP-12b
• A Homogeneous Catalog of Rossiter-McLaughlin Systems: Distinct $e$-$\lambda$ Trends in Three Gas-Giant Mass Regimes
• Exploring Long-period Architectures: Four New Planet Candidates from Kepler with Periods >342 days