A framework for the architecture of exoplanetary systems. II. Nature versus nurture: Emergent formation pathways of architecture classes

Abstract

In the first paper of this series, we proposed a model-independent framework for characterising the architecture of planetary systems at the system level. There are four classes of planetary system architecture: similar, mixed, anti-ordered, and ordered. In this paper, we investigate the formation pathways leading to these four architecture classes. To understand the role of nature versus nurture in sculpting the final (mass) architecture of a system, we apply our architecture framework to synthetic planetary systems -- formed via core-accretion -- using the Bern model. General patterns emerge in the formation pathways of the four architecture classes. Almost all planetary systems emerging from protoplanetary disks whose initial solid mass was less than one Jupiter mass are similar. Systems emerging from heavier disks may become mixed, anti-ordered, or ordered. Increasing dynamical interactions (planet-planet, planet-disk) tends to shift a system's architecture from mixed to anti-ordered to ordered. Our model predicts the existence of a new metallicity-architecture correlation. Similar systems have very high occurrence around low-metallicity stars. The occurrence of the anti-ordered and ordered classes increases with increasing metallicity. The occurrence of mixed architecture first increases and then decreases with increasing metallicity. In our synthetic planetary systems, the role of nature is disentangled from the role of nurture. Nature (or initial conditions) pre-determines whether the architecture of a system becomes similar; otherwise nurture influences whether a system becomes mixed, anti-ordered, or ordered. We propose the `Aryabhata formation scenario' to explain some planetary systems which host only water-rich worlds. We finish this paper with a discussion of future observational and theoretical works that may support or refute the results of this paper.

arXiv comment12 pages, 5 figures, accepted in A&A

References in corpus (61)

• New evolutionary models for pre-main sequence and main sequence low-mass stars down to the hydrogen-burning limit
• Architecture and Dynamics of Kepler's Candidate Multiple Transiting Planet Systems
• Architecture of Kepler's Multi-transiting Systems: II. New investigations with twice as many candidates
• Models of Giant Planet formation with migration and disc evolution
• Extrasolar planet population synthesis I: Method, formation tracks and mass-distance distribution
• Stellar, brown dwarf and multiple star properties from a radiation hydrodynamical simulation of star cluster formation
• A torque formula for non-isothermal Type I planetary migration - II. Effects of diffusion
• The California-Kepler Survey. IV. Metal-rich Stars Host a Greater Diversity of Planets
• Planetary population synthesis coupled with atmospheric escape: a statistical view of evaporation
• On the diversity and statistical properties of protostellar discs
• Evolution of protoplanetary disks: Constraints from DM Tauri and GM Aurigae
• Characterization of exoplanets from their formation I: Models of combined planet formation and evolution
• The California-Kepler Survey V. Peas in a Pod: Planets in a Kepler Multi-planet System are Similar in Size and Regularly Spaced
• Spectroscopic metallicities for planet-host stars: extending the samples
• Characterization of exoplanets from their formation II: The planetary mass-radius relationship
• Migration and giant planet formation
• The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). IV. Planetary systems around low-mass stars
• Theoretical models of planetary system formation: mass vs semi-major axis
• The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). I. Bern global model of planet formation and evolution, model tests, and emerging planetary systems
• On the formation of planetary systems via oligarchic growth in thermally evolving viscous discs
• Kepler Multi-Planet Systems Exhibit Unexpected Intra-system Uniformity in Mass and Radius
• Migration of extrasolar planets to large orbital radii
• Extrasolar planet population synthesis III. Formation of planets around stars of different masses
• From stellar nebula to planets: the refractory components
• AMD-stability and the classification of planetary systems
• Planet formation models: the interplay with the planetesimal disc
• The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). II. Planetary population of solar-like stars and overview of statistical results
• Architectures of Exoplanetary Systems. I: A Clustered Forward Model for Exoplanetary Systems around Kepler's FGK Stars
• Are Planetary Systems Filled to Capacity? A Study Based on Kepler Results
• On The Relative Sizes of Planets Within Kepler Multiple Candidate Systems
• Impacts of planet migration models on planetary populations. Effects of saturation, cooling and stellar irradiation
• The stability of tightly-packed, evenly-spaced systems of Earth-mass planets orbiting a Sun-like star
• From planetesimals to planets: volatile molecules
• The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). III. Warm super-Earths and cold Jupiters: A weak occurrence correlation, but with a strong architecture-composition link
• The statistical mechanics of planet orbits
• From stellar nebula to planetesimals
• Stellar clustering shapes the architectures of planetary systems
• Evidence of Three Mechanisms Explaining the Radius Anomaly of Hot Jupiters
• An information theoretic framework for classifying exoplanetary system architectures
• Constraining disk evolution prescriptions of planet population synthesis models with observed disk masses and accretion rates
• Hill stability in the AMD framework
• The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). V. Predetermination of planet types in global core accretion models
• Halting planet migration by photoevaporation from the central source
• The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). VI. Introducing KOBE: Kepler Observes Bern Exoplanets. Theoretical perspectives on the architecture of planetary systems: Peas in a pod
• A framework for the architecture of exoplanetary systems. I. Four classes of planetary system architecture
• Energy Optimization in Extrasolar Planetary Systems: The Transition from Peas-in-a-Pod to Runaway Growth
• Architectures of Exoplanetary Systems. II: An Increase in Inner Planetary System Occurrence Toward Later Spectral Types for Kepler's FGK Dwarfs
• Normalized angular momentum deficit: A tool for comparing the violence of the dynamical histories of planetary systems
• The influence of infall on the properties of protoplanetary discs
• On the stellar clustering and architecture of planetary systems
• Pairwise Tidal Equilibrium States and the Architecture of Extrasolar Planetary Systems
• Earths in Other Solar Systems N-body simulations: the Role of Orbital Damping in Reproducing the Kepler Planetary Systems
• Do planets remember how they formed?
• A new metric to quantify the similarity between planetary systems - application to dimensionality reduction using T-SNE
• Giant planet formation: episodic impacts vs. gradual core growth
• Stability Constrained Characterization of Multiplanet Systems
• On planetary systems as ordered sequences
• Quantifying the Similarity of Planetary System Architectures
• On the Scaling and Spacing of Extra-Solar Multi-Planet Systems
• The Mass Budgets and Spatial Scales of Exoplanet Systems and Protoplanetary Disks
• Split Peas in a Pod: Intra-System Uniformity of Super-Earths and Sub-Neptunes

Cited by in corpus (9)

• A framework for the architecture of exoplanetary systems. I. Four classes of planetary system architecture
• Planetary Population Synthesis and the Emergence of Four Classes of Planetary System Architectures
• Unveiling the internal structure and formation history of the three planets transiting HIP 29442 (TOI-469) with CHEOPS
• Architecture Classification for Extrasolar Planetary Systems
• Earth-like planets hosting systems: Architecture and properties
• Diversities and similarities exhibited by multi-planetary systems and their architectures: I. Orbital spacings
• The PAIRS project: a global formation model for planets in binaries. I. Effect of disc truncation on the growth of S-type planets
• The TESS-Keck Survey. XIX. A Warm Transiting Sub-Saturn Mass Planet and a non-Transiting Saturn Mass Planet Orbiting a Solar Analog
• On the Ordering of Exoplanet Systems