Migration and Growth of Protoplanetary Embryos III: Mass and Metallicity Dependence for FGKM main-sequence stars

Abstract

Radial velocity and transit surveys have found that the fraction of FGKM stars with close-in super-Earth(s) (${\eta }_{\oplus }$) is around $30\%-50\%$, independent of the stellar mass $M_{\ast }$ and metallicity $Z_{\ast }$. In contrast, the fraction of solar-type stars harboring one or more gas giants (${\eta }_J$) with masses $M_{\mathrm{p}}>100M_{\oplus }$ is nearly $10\%-15\%$, and it appears to increase with both $M_{\ast }$ and $Z_{\ast }$. Regardless of the properties of their host stars, the total mass of some multiple super-Earth systems exceeds the core mass of Jupiter and Saturn. We suggest that both super-Earths and supercritical cores of gas giants were assembled from a population of embryos that underwent convergent type I migration from their birthplaces to a transition location between viscously heated and irradiation heated disk regions. We attribute the cause for the ${\eta }_{\oplus }$-${\eta }_{\mathrm{J}}$ dichotomy to conditions required for embryos to merge and to acquire supercritical core mass ($M_c\sim 10M_{\oplus }$) for the onset of efficient gaseous envelope accretion. We translate this condition into a critical disk accretion rate, and our analysis and simulation results show that it weakly depends on $M_{\ast }$ and decreases with metallicity of disk gas $Z_{\mathrm{d}}$. We find that embryos are more likely to merge into supercritical cores around relatively massive and metal-rich stars. This dependence accounts for the observed ${\eta }_{\mathrm{J}}$-$M_{\ast }$. We also consider the $Z_{\mathrm{d}}$-$Z_{\ast }$ dispersed relationship and reproduce the observed ${\eta }_J$-$Z_{\ast }$ correlation.

arXiv comment20 pages, 10 figure, accepted in ApJ

References in corpus (82)

• Planet Occurrence within 0.25 AU of Solar-type Stars from Kepler
• The false positive rate of Kepler and the occurrence of planets
• Towards a Deterministic Model of Planetary Formation I: a Desert in the Mass and Semi Major Axis Distributions of Extra Solar Planets
• Spectroscopic [Fe/H] for 98 extra-solar planet-host stars: Exploring the probability of planet formation
• The Keck Planet Search: Detectability and the Minimum Mass and Orbital Period Distribution of Extrasolar Planets
• Rapid growth of gas-giant cores by pebble accretion
• Most 1.6 Earth-Radius Planets are not Rocky
• Architecture and Dynamics of Kepler's Candidate Multiple Transiting Planet Systems
• The Mass Dependence Between Protoplanetary Disks and their Stellar Hosts
• Planet-disk interaction and orbital evolution
• Understanding the Mass-Radius Relation for Sub-Neptunes: Radius as a Proxy for Composition
• Giant Planet Occurrence in the Stellar Mass-Metallicity Plane
• The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets XXXI. The M-dwarf sample
• The Occurrence Rate of Small Planets around Small Stars
• The effect of gas drag on the growth of protoplanets -- Analytical expressions for the accretion of small bodies in laminar disks
• Spectroscopic parameters for 451 stars in the HARPS GTO planet search program. Stellar [Fe/H] and the frequency of exo-Neptunes
• The Mass-Radius Relation for 65 Exoplanets Smaller than 4 Earth Radii
• The formation and retention of gas giant planets around stars with a range of metallicities
• Accretion Disks Around Young Objects. III. Grain Growth
• A torque formula for non-isothermal Type I planetary migration - II. Effects of diffusion
• Wind-driven Accretion in Protoplanetary Disks. I: Suppression of the Magnetorotational Instability and Launching of the Magnetocentrifugal Wind
• Towards a deterministic model of planetary formation. III. Mass distribution of short-period planets around stars of various masses
• Masses, Radii, and Orbits of Small Kepler Planets: The Transition from Gaseous to Rocky Planets
• Revised Stellar Properties of Kepler Targets for the Quarter 1-16 Transit Detection Run
• A torque formula for non-isothermal Type I planetary migration - I. Unsaturated horseshoe drag
• Core-Accretion Model Predicts Few Jovian-Mass Planets Orbiting Red Dwarfs
• Mass-Radius Relation for Rocky Planets based on PREM
• Forming Planetesimals in Solar and Extrasolar Nebulae
• Magnetorotational Instability in Protoplanetary Disks. II. Ionization State and Unstable Regions
• Toward a Deterministic Model of Planetary Formation V. Accumulation Near the Ice Line
• Extrasolar planet population synthesis IV. Correlations with disk metallicity, mass and lifetime
• The Evolution of the Water Distribution in a Viscous Protoplanetary Disk
• Accretion in the Rho-Oph pre-main sequence stars
• Three regimes of extrasolar planets inferred from host star metallicities
• A New Planet Around an M Dwarf: Revealing a Correlation Between Exoplanets and Stellar Mass
• A stellar-mass-dependent drop in planet occurrence rates
• Local Magnetohydrodynamical Models of Layered Accretion Disks
• Spectroscopic stellar parameters for 582 FGK stars in the HARPS volume-limited sample. Revising the metallicity-planet correlation
• Accretion Rates in Herbig Ae stars
• Analytical protostellar disk models 1: the effect of internal dissipation and surface irradiation on the structure of disks and the location of the snow line around Sun-like stars
• Grain Retention and Formation of Planetesimals near the Snow Line in MRI-driven Turbulent Protoplanetary Disks
• A Detailed Model Grid for Solid Planets from 0.1 through 100 Earth Masses
• Exploring The Frequency Of Close-In Jovian Planets Around M Dwarfs
• Inside-Out Planet Formation
• Density and Eccentricity of Kepler Planets
• The Mass of Kepler-93b and The Composition of Terrestrial Planets
• Material enhancement in protoplanetary nebulae by particle drift through evaporation fronts
• Toward a Deterministic Model of Planetary Formation VII: Eccentricity Distribution of Gas Giants
• Formation of Jupiter using opacities based on detailed grain physics
• Turbulent Mixing and the Dead Zone in Protostellar Disks
• On the formation of planetary systems via oligarchic growth in thermally evolving viscous discs
• Post-Oligarchic Evolution of Protoplanetary Embryos and the Stability of Planetary Systems
• Orbital migration of low-mass planets in evolutionary radiative models: Avoiding catastrophic infall
• Stellar irradiated discs and implications on migration of embedded planets I: equilibrium discs
• On the Orbital Evolution of Low Mass Protoplanets in Turbulent, Magnetised Disks
• Dead Zone Accretion Flows in Protostellar Disks
• Orbital evolution of eccentric planets in radiative discs
• Type I Planetary Migration with MHD Turbulence
• Elemental abundance differences in the 16 Cygni binary system: a signature of gas giant planet formation?
• Constraints on resonant-trapping for two planets embedded in a protoplanetary disc
• Hot super-Earths and giant planet cores from different migration histories
• Fast Rise of "Neptune-Size" Planets ($4-8R_{\mathrm{Earth}}$) from $P\sim 10$ to $\sim 250$ days -- Statistics of Kepler Planet Candidates Up to $\sim 0.75\mathrm{AU}$
• Stopping inward planetary migration by a toroidal magnetic field
• Binaries migrating in a gaseous disk: Where are the Galactic center binaries?
• Synthesizing Exoplanet Demographics from Radial Velocity and Microlensing Surveys, II: The Frequency of Planets Orbiting M Dwarfs
• HST measures of Mass Accretion Rates in the Orion Nebula Cluster
• New and updated stellar parameters for 71 evolved planet hosts. On the metallicity - giant planet connection
• On the migration-induced resonances in a system of two planets with masses in the Earth mass range
• The dissimilar chemical composition of the planet-hosting stars of the XO-2 binary system
• Condition for Capture into First-order Mean Motion Resonances and Application to Constraints on Origin of Resonant Systems
• Understanding how planets become massive. I. Description and validation of a new toy model
• The Importance of Disk Structure in Stalling Type I Migration
• Kepler Exoplanet Candidate Host Stars are Preferentially Metal Rich
• Time evolution of snow regions and planet traps in an evolving protoplanetary disk
• A Continuum of Planet Formation Between 1 and 4 Earth Radii
• The Mdot - M* relation of pre-main sequence stars: a consequence of X-ray driven disc evolution
• Migration and Growth of Protoplanetary Embryos I: Convergence of Embryos in Protoplanetary Disks
• Dead Zones as Thermal Barriers to Rapid Planetary Migration in Protoplanetary Disks
• Spectroscopic abundance analysis of dwarfs in young open cluster IC 4665
• Making giant planet cores: convergent migration and growth of planetary embryos in non-isothermal discs
• Migration and Growth of Protoplanetary Embryos II: Emergence of Proto-Gas-Giants Cores versus Super Earths' Progenitor
• Strong Biases in Estimating the Time Dependence of Mass Accretion Rates in Young Stars

Cited by in corpus (14)

• Breaking the Chains: Hot Super-Earth systems from migration and disruption of compact resonant chains
• How formation time-scales affect the period dependence of the transition between rocky super-Earths and gaseous sub-Neptunes and implications for ${\eta }_{\oplus }$
• LAMOST telescope reveals that Neptunian cousins of hot Jupiters are mostly single offspring of stars that are rich in heavy elements
• Heavy metal rules. I. Exoplanet incidence and metallicity
• Dynamical rearrangement of super-Earths during disk dispersal I. Outline of the magnetospheric rebound model
• KELT-17b: A hot-Jupiter transiting an A-star in a misaligned orbit detected with Doppler tomography
• A Tale of Planet Formation: From Dust to Planets
• Formation of planetary systems by pebble accretion and migration: Hot super-Earth systems from breaking compact resonant chains
• The Preservation of Super Earths and the Emergence of Gas Giants after Their Progenitor Cores have Entered the Pebble Isolation Phase
• Chemical fingerprints of hot Jupiter planet formation
• Wide Dust Gaps in Protoplanetary Disks Induced by Eccentric Planets: A Mass-Eccentricity Degeneracy
• Outcomes of Grazing Impacts Between Sub-Neptunes in Kepler Multis
• Dynamical rearrangement of super-Earths during disk dispersal II. Assessment of the magnetospheric rebound model for planet formation scenarios
• The peculiar composition of the Sun is not related to giant planets