The Mass-Radius Relation for 65 Exoplanets Smaller than 4 Earth Radii

Abstract

We study the masses and radii of 65 exoplanets smaller than 4 Earth radii with orbital periods shorter than 100 days. We calculate the weighted mean densities of planets in bins of 0.5 Earth radii and identify a density maximum of 7.6 g/cc at 1.4 Earth radii. Planets with radii up to R = 1.5 Earth radii increase in density with increasing radius. Above 1.5 Earth radii, planet density rapidly decreases with increasing radius, indicating that these planets have a large fraction of volatiles by volume overlying a rocky core. Including the solar system terrestrial planets with the exoplanets below 1.5 Earth radii, we find ρ= 2.43 + 3.39 (R/R_E) g cm^-3 for R < 1.5 Earth radii, which is consistent with rocky compositions. For exoplanets between 1.5 and 4 Earth radii, we find M/M_E = 2.69 (R/R_E)^0.93. The RMS of planet masses to the fit between 1.5 and 4 Earth radii is 4.3 M_E with reduced χ^2 = 6.2. The large scatter indicates a diversity in planet composition at a given radius. The compositional diversity can be due to planets of a given volume (as determined by their large H/He envelopes) containing rocky cores of different masses or compositions.

9 pages, 3 figures. Published in ApJL 2014 February 13

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• On the radial velocity detection of additional planets in transiting, slowly rotating M-dwarf systems: the case of GJ 1132
• Using HARPS-N to characterise the long-period planets in the PH-2 and Kepler-103 systems
• Migrating Planets into Ultra-Short-Period Orbits during Episodic Accretion Events
• Predictions of planet detections with near infrared radial velocities in the up-coming SPIRou Legacy Survey-Planet Search
• Dynamics and Collisional Evolution of Closely Packed Planetary Systems
• TESS-Keck Survey XIV: Two giant exoplanets from the Distant Giants Survey
• No Metallicity Correlation Associated with the Kepler Dichotomy
• Thermal and orbital evolution of low-mass exoplanets
• Two Planets Straddling the Habitable Zone of The Nearby K Dwarf Gl 414A
• Two planetary systems with transiting Earth-size and super-Earth planets orbiting late-type dwarf stars
• Super-Earths as Failed Cores in Orbital Migration Traps
• Biases in retrieving planetary signals in the presence of quasi-periodic stellar activity
• Searching for small primordial black holes in planets, asteroids and here on Earth
• Why do more massive stars host larger planets?
• Exoplanet atmosphere evolution: emulation with neural networks
• KOI-1003: A new spotted, eclipsing RS CVn binary in the Kepler field
• Confirmation of the Long-Period Planet Orbiting Gliese 411 and the Detection of a New Planet Candidate
• Synergies between Asteroseismology and Exoplanetary Science
• On the Formation of Super-Earths with Implications for the Solar System
• Formation of Super-Earths by Tidally-Forced Turbulence
• A super-Earth on a close-in orbit around the M1V star GJ 740. A HADES and CARMENES collaboration
• Host Star Dependence of Small Planet Mass-Radius Distributions
• Simulating Radial Velocity Observations of Trappist-1 with SPIRou
• Influences of protoplanet-induced three-dimensional gas flow on pebble accretion $\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I}$. Headwind regime
• Enhanced Size Uniformity for Near-resonant Planets
• Mass determination of K2-19b and K2-19c from radial velocities and transit timing variations
• The Dynamic Proto-atmospheres around Low-Mass Planets with Eccentric Orbits
• Dynamical rearrangement of super-Earths during disk dispersal II. Assessment of the magnetospheric rebound model for planet formation scenarios
• Impact of M-dwarf Stellar Wind and Photoevaporation on the Atmospheric Evolution of Small Planets
• TOI-1296b and TOI-1298b observed with TESS and SOPHIE: Two hot Saturn-mass exoplanets with different densities around metal-rich stars
• Sensitivity Analyses of Exoplanet Occurrence Rates from Kepler and Gaia
• A Multi-Year Search For Transits Of Proxima Centauri. I: Light Curves Corresponding To Published Ephemerides
• Photo-dynamical characterisation of the TOI-178 resonant chain
• The distribution of mutual inclinations arising from the stellar quadrupole moment
• A Geologically Robust Procedure For Observing Rocky Exoplanets to Ensure that Detection of Atmospheric Oxygen is an Earth-Like Biosignature
• Assessing the Interior Structure of Terrestrial Exoplanets with Implications for Habitability
• Refraction in exoplanet atmospheres: Photometric signatures, implications for transmission spectroscopy, and search in Kepler data
• Observational constraints on the formation and evolution of Neptune-class exoplanets
• Ground-based Transit Observation of the Habitable-zone Super-Earth K2-3d
• Characterisation of TOI-406 as showcase of the THIRSTEE program: A 2-planet system straddling the M-dwarf density gap
• Consequences of dynamically unstable moons in extrasolar systems
• Effects of Planetesimal Accretion on the Thermal and Structural Evolution of Sub-Neptunes
• Unveiling the Planet Population at Birth
• Estimating Planetary Mass with Deep Learning
• The independent discovery of planet candidates around low mass stars and astrophysical false positives from the first two TESS sectors
• Monitoring of the D Doublet of Neutral Sodium during Transits of Two "Evaporating" Planets
• exoMMR: a New Python Package to Confirm and Characterize Mean Motion Resonances
• Exploiting periodic orbits as dynamical clues for Kepler and K2 systems
• Confirming Resonance in Three Transiting Systems
• The TESS-Keck Survey. XIII. An Eccentric Hot Neptune with a Similar-Mass Outer Companion around TOI-1272
• Identifying Exo-Earth Candidates in Direct Imaging Data through Bayesian Classification
• Transit Depth Variations Reveal TOI-216 b to be a Super-Puff
• Capture of satellites during planetary encounters A case study of the Neptunian moons Triton and Nereid
• Blowin' in the non-isothermal wind: core-powered mass loss with hydrodynamic radiative transfer
• Water-Cooled (sub)-Neptunes Get Better Gas Mileage
• Calibrating Iodine Cells for Precise Radial Velocities
• Dust ring and gap formation by gas flow induced by low-mass planets embedded in protoplanetary disks $\mathrm{I}$. Steady-state model
• Orbital Evolution of Close-in Super-Earths Driven by Atmospheric Escape
• A 2 Earth Radius Planet Orbiting the Bright Nearby K-Dwarf Wolf 503
• Possible Outcomes of Coplanar High-eccentricity Migration: Hot Jupiters, Close-in Super-Earths, and Counter-orbiting Planets
• Radii, masses, and transit-timing variations of the three-planet system orbiting the naked-eye star TOI-396
• Predicting exoplanet mass from radius and incident flux: A Bayesian mixture model
• Can Rocky Exoplanets with Rings Pose as Sub-Neptunes?
• Dust ring and gap formation by gas flow induced by low-mass planets embedded in protoplanetary disks $\mathrm{II}$. Time-dependent model
• Kepler-102: Masses and Compositions for a Super-Earth and Sub-Neptune Orbiting an Active Star
• Terrestrial planet formation during giant planet formation and giant planet migration I: The first 5 million years
• Geoastronomy: Rocky planets as the Lavosier-Lomonosov Bridge from the non-living to the living world
• One of Everything: The Breakthrough Listen Exotica Catalog
• Formation of Super-Earths
• A rocky exoplanet classification method and its application to calculating surface pressure and surface temperature
• Multi-band reflectance and shadowing of RX J1604.3-2130 protoplanetary disk in scattered light
• Planets similar in size are often dissimilar in interior
• Convection and Clouds under Different Planetary Gravities Simulated by a Small-domain Cloud-resolving Model
• Quantitative Criteria for Defining Planets
• Accretion of Planetary Material onto Host Stars
• Temperate super-Earths/mini-Neptunes around M/K dwarfs Consist of 2 Populations Distinguished by Their Atmospheres
• Discovery and Characterization of Kepler-36b
• Validation of a Temperate Fourth Planet in the K2-133 Multi-planet System
• Dynamical evolution and stability maps of the Proxima Centauri system
• A transiting rocky super-Earth and a non-transiting sub-Neptune orbiting the M dwarf TOI-771
• Origin of compact exoplanetary systems during disk infall
• On the Utility of Transmission Color Analysis I: Differentiating Super-Earths and Sub-Neptunes
• The architecture of multi-planet systems as a tracer of their formation mechanisms
• A Criterion for the Onset of Chaos in Compact, Eccentric Multiplanet Systems
• The Occurrence-weighted Median Planets Discovered by Transit Surveys Orbiting Solar-type Stars and Their Implications for Planet Formation and Evolution
• Ohmic dissipation during the formation of super-Earth
• Refining the Masses and Radii of the Star Kepler-33 and its Five Transiting Planets
• The Observational Effects and Signatures of Tidally Distorted Solid Exoplanets
• Multicolour Validation of Two Temperate Mini-Neptunes Around M-dwarf Habitable Zones
• Do Outer Giants Inflate Neptune-sized Planets? An Architecture-Dependent Mass-Radius Relation
• In situ formation of super-Earth/sub-Neptune driven by the planetary rotation