A super-Earth transiting a nearby low-mass star

Abstract

A decade ago, the detection of the first transiting extrasolar planet provided a direct constraint on its composition and opened the door to spectroscopic investigations of extrasolar planetary atmospheres. As such characterization studies are feasible only for transiting systems that are both nearby and for which the planet-to-star radius ratio is relatively large, nearby small stars have been surveyed intensively. Doppler studies and microlensing have uncovered a population of planets with minimum masses of 1.9-10 times the Earth's mass (M_Earth), called super-Earths. The first constraint on the bulk composition of this novel class of planets was afforded by CoRoT-7b, but the distance and size of its star preclude atmospheric studies in the foreseeable future. Here we report observations of the transiting planet GJ 1214b, which has a mass of 6.55 M_Earth and a radius 2.68 times Earth's radius (R_Earth), indicating that it is intermediate in stature between Earth and the ice giants of the Solar System. We find that the planetary mass and radius are consistent with a composition of primarily water enshrouded by a hydrogen-helium envelope that is only 0.05% of the mass of the planet. The atmosphere is probably escaping hydrodynamically, indicating that it has undergone significant evolution during its history. As the star is small and only 13 parsecs away, the planetary atmosphere is amenable to study with current observatories.

13 pages, 3 figures, published in Nature

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• Narrow-K-Band Observations of the GJ 1214 System
• OGLE-2011-BLG-0265Lb: a Jovian Microlensing Planet Orbiting an M Dwarf
• Modeled flux and polarisation signals of horizontally inhomogeneous exoplanets, applied to Earth--like planets
• Exoplanet Characterization by Proxy: a Transiting 2.15 R_Earth Planet Near the Habitable Zone of the Late K dwarf Kepler-61
• Large Binocular Telescope view of the atmosphere of GJ1214b
• A System of Three Super Earths Transiting the Late K-Dwarf GJ 9827 at Thirty Parsecs
• Limits on the Orbits and Masses of Moons around Currently-Known Transiting Exoplanets
• The Fundamental Connections Between the Solar System and Exoplanetary Science
• Optical Observations of the Transiting Exoplanet GJ 1214b
• Quantifying the Observational Effort Required for the Radial Velocity Characterization of TESS Planets
• Connecting the dots III: Night side cooling and surface friction affect climates of tidally locked terrestrial planets
• An Astrometric Search for a Sub-stellar Companion of the M8.5 Dwarf TVLM 513-46546 Using Very Long Baseline Interferometry
• The TIME Table: Rotation and Ages of Cool Exoplanet Host Stars
• Spectroscopic characterization of the atmospheres of potentially habitable planets: GL 581 d as a model case study
• Young Exoplanet Transit Initiative (YETI)
• Precision Near Infrared Photometry For Exoplanet Transit Observations - I : Ensemble Spot Photometry for An All-Sky Survey
• Cleaning our Hazy Lens: Exploring Trends in Transmission Spectra of Warm Exoplanets
• Long-term chromospheric activity in southern M dwarfs: Gl 229 A and Gl 752 A
• A search for transits of GJ 581\lowercase{e} and characterization of the host star variability using MOST space telescope photometry
• Dynamics of Rotation of Super-Earths
• Proxima Centauri b is not a transiting exoplanet
• Measuring NIR Atmospheric Extinction Using a Global Positioning System Receiver
• The Formation and Dynamics of Super-Earth Planets
• ExTrA: Exoplanets in Transit and their Atmospheres
• J band Variability of M Dwarfs in the WFCAM Transit Survey
• Transit and Radial Velocity Survey Efficiency Comparison for a Habitable Zone Earth
• Search for Rayleigh scattering in the atmosphere of GJ1214b
• Two Small Temperate Planets Transiting Nearby M Dwarfs in K2 Campaigns 0 and 1
• The Gold Standard: Accurate Stellar and Planetary Parameters for Eight Kepler M dwarf Systems Enabled by Parallaxes
• Stellar & Planetary Parameters for K2's Late Type Dwarf Systems from C1 to C5
• Narrow Band Halpha Photometry of the Super-Earth GJ 1214b with GTC/OSIRIS Tunable Filters
• The Impact of Phase Equilibrium Cloud Models on GCM Simulations of GJ~1214b
• The APACHE Project
• The Colorado Ultraviolet Transit Experiment (CUTE) Mission Overview
• Photometric transit search for planets around cool stars from the western Italian Alps: A pilot study
• On the probability of habitable planets
• Detection of Neptune-size planetary candidates with CoRoT data. Comparison with the planet occurrence rate derived from Kepler
• High precision radial velocities with GIANO spectra
• The Spitzer search for the transits of HARPS low-mass planets - I. No transit for the super-Earth HD 40307b
• TOI 540 b: A Planet Smaller than Earth Orbiting a Nearby Rapidly Rotating Low-mass Star
• Matrix-propagator approach to compute fluid Love numbers and applicability to extrasolar planets
• On the detectability of transiting planets orbiting white dwarfs using LSST
• Volatile Transport inside Super-Earths by Entrapment in the Water Ice Matrix
• Refraction in planetary atmospheres: improved analytical expressions and comparison with a new ray-tracing algorithm
• On the Nature of Small Planets around the Coolest Kepler Stars
• Super-Earths: A New Class of Planetary Bodies
• A Search for Additional Bodies in the GJ 1132 Planetary System from 21 Ground-based Transits and a 100 Hour Spitzer Campaign
• Robust Transiting Exoplanet Radii in the Presence of Starspots from Ingress and Egress Durations
• Tidal evolution of exo-planetary systems: WASP-50, GJ 1214 and CoRoT-7
• Detecting the Signatures of Uranus and Neptune
• K2-265 b: A Transiting Rocky Super-Earth
• Ground-based transit observations of the super-Earth GJ 1214b
• Physical properties of the planetary systems WASP-45 and WASP-46 from simultaneous multi-band photometry
• Using JWST transits and occultations to determine $\sim 1\%$ stellar radii and temperatures of low-mass stars
• On the dynamics of resonant super-Earths in disks with turbulence driven by stochastic forcing
• Flare activity and photospheric analysis of Proxima Centauri
• Demonstrating High-precision, Multiband Transit Photometry with MuSCAT: A Case for HAT-P-14b
• X-ray emission from the super-Earth host GJ 1214
• TESS discovery of a sub-Neptune orbiting a mid-M dwarf TOI-2136
• Characterizing the atmospheres of transiting rocky planets around late type dwarfs
• Quantifying the Influence of Jupiter on the Earth's Orbital Cycles
• TOI-969: a late-K dwarf with a hot mini-Neptune in the desert and an eccentric cold Jupiter
• K2-288Bb: A Small Temperate Planet in a Low-mass Binary System Discovered by Citizen Scientists
• High-speed imaging and wavefront sensing with an infrared avalanche photodiode array
• Exoplanet Populations and their Dependence on Host Star Properties
• Collisional Fragmentation is Not a Barrier to Close-in Planet Formation
• Photochemical hazes can trace the C/O ratio in exoplanet atmospheres
• Keck NIRSPEC Radial Velocity Observations of Late-M dwarfs
• Probing atmospheric escape through metastable He I triplet lines in 15 exoplanets observed with SPIRou
• ACCESS: Confirmation of no potassium in the atmosphere of WASP-31b
• Planetary parameters, XUV environments and mass-loss rates for nearby gaseous planets with X-ray detected host-stars
• TOI-1696: a nearby M4 dwarf with a $3R_{\oplus }$ planet in the Neptunian desert
• GJ 3090 b: one of the most favourable mini-Neptune for atmospheric characterisation
• Search for radial velocity variations in eight M-dwarfs with NIRSPEC/Keck II
• Impact of Tides on the Potential for Exoplanets to Host Exomoons
• On the Apparent Orbital Inclination Change of the Extrasolar Transiting Planet TrES-2b
• HATS-13b and HATS-14b: two transiting hot Jupiters from the HATSouth survey
• An investigation of a super-Earth exoplanet with a greenhouse-gas atmosphere using a general circulation model
• Optimal Measures for Characterizing Water-rich Super-Earths
• Nonequilibrium thermodynamics of circulation regimes in optically-thin, dry atmospheres
• Searching for the Transit of the Earth--mass exoplanet Proxima~Centauri~b in Antarctica: Preliminary Result
• TOI-1801 b: A temperate mini-Neptune around a young M0.5 dwarf
• The Astrophysical Environment of the Solar Birthplace
• Measuring the variability of directly imaged exoplanets using vector Apodizing Phase Plates combined with ground-based differential spectrophotometry
• Exoplanetary Geophysics -- An Emerging Discipline
• Spitzer Infrared Observations and Independent Validation of the Transiting Super-Earth CoRoT-7b
• A sensitivity analysis of the WFCAM Transit Survey for short-period giant planets around M dwarfs
• Reconstructing the photometric light curves of Earth as a planet along its history
• Atmospheric characterization of cold exoplanets using a 1.5-m coronagraphic space telescope
• Non-detection of Helium in the Hot Jupiter WASP-48b
• Search for bright nearby M dwarfs with Virtual Observatory tools
• A simple, quantitative method to infer the minimum atmospheric height of small exoplanets
• Clouds and Hazes in GJ 1214b's Metal-Rich Atmosphere
• The Spitzer search for the transits of HARPS low-mass planets - II. Null results for 19 planets
• The Next Generation Transit Survey - Prototyping Phase
• HATS-50b through HATS-53b: four transiting hot Jupiters orbiting G-type stars discovered by the HATSouth survey
• Conservation of Total Escape from Hydrodynamic Planetary Atmospheres
• Probing TRAPPIST-1-like systems with K2
• Trawling for transits in a sea of noise: A Search for Exoplanets by Analysis of WASP Optical Lightcurves and Follow-up (SEAWOLF)
• Precision of a Low-Cost InGaAs Detector for Near Infrared Photometry
• Evolution of steam worlds: energetic aspects
• Design Considerations for a Ground-Based Search for Transiting Planets around L and T Dwarfs
• TOSC: an algorithm for the tomography of spotted transit chords
• Telescope Fabra ROA Montsec: a new robotic wide-field Baker-Nunn facility
• Radial velocity homogeneous analysis of M dwarfs observed with HARPS I. Exoplanet detection and candidates
• From Super-Earths to Mini-Neptunes: Implications of a Surface on Atmospheric Circulation
• Atmospheric Characterization via Broadband Color Filters on the PLAnetary Transits and Oscillations of stars (PLATO) Mission
• Temporal changes of the flare activity of Proxima Cen
• On the structure and long-term evolution of ice-rich bodies
• K2-HERMES II. Planet-candidate properties from K2 Campaigns 1-13
• Looking For Timing Variations in the Transits of 16 Exoplanets
• Magnetic Inflation and Stellar Mass. V. Intensification and saturation of M dwarf absorption lines with Rossby number
• The silicate model and carbon rich model of CoRoT-7b, Kepler-9d and Kepler-10b
• Polarized Signatures of a Habitable World: Comparing Models of an Exoplanet Earth with Visible and Near-infrared Earthshine Spectra
• The Effect of Metallicity on the Non-Equilibrium Abundance of Hydrogen Dominated Exoplanet Atmosphere
• Planet formation and disk mass dependence in a pebble-driven scenario for low mass stars
• The independent discovery of planet candidates around low mass stars and astrophysical false positives from the first two TESS sectors
• A Spitzer Search for Transits of Radial Velocity Detected Super-Earths
• An educated search for transiting habitable planets. Targetting M dwarfs with known transiting planets
• Potential Interior Structures and Habitability of Super-Earth Exoplanets LHS 1140 b, K2-18 b, TOI-1452 b and TOI-1468 c
• ARES VI: Viability of one-dimensional retrieval models for transmission spectroscopy characterization of exo-atmospheres in the era of JWST and Ariel
• A transiting super-Earth close to the inner edge of the habitable zone of an M0 dwarf star
• Not All Sub-Neptune Exoplanets Have Magma Oceans
• Development of the SPECULOOS exoplanet search project
• Tighter constraints on the atmosphere of GJ 436 b from combined high-resolution CARMENES and CRIRES${}^{+}$ observations
• Model-free inverse method for transit imaging of stellar surfaces: Using transit surveys to map stellar spot coverage
• The Gaia Survey Contribution to EChO Target Selection and Characterization
• SAFARI I: A SPHERE discovery of a super metal-rich M dwarf companion to the star HD 86006
• Model-independent exoplanet transit spectroscopy
• Simultaneous multicolour optical and near-IR transit photometry of GJ 1214b with SOFIA
• One of Everything: The Breakthrough Listen Exotica Catalog
• Exoplanet atmospheres with EChO: spectral retrievals using EChOSim
• Exoplanet Atmospheres and Giant Ground-Based Telescopes
• Kinematics And Ellipsoidal Motion Of The Mid To Late M-Type Stars
• Temperate super-Earths/mini-Neptunes around M/K dwarfs Consist of 2 Populations Distinguished by Their Atmospheres
• The Detectability of Earth's Biosignatures Across Time
• Transit Timing Variations of Five Transiting Planets
• Using Satellites to Probe Extrasolar Planet Formation
• Forecasting the detectability of known radial velocity planets with the upcoming CHEOPS mission
• Synergies between Exoplanet Surveys and Variable Star Research
• The contribution of the major planet search surveys to EChO target selection
• Halting Migration in Magnetospherically Sculpted Protoplanetary Disks
• The Effects of Cuboid Particle Scattering on Reflected Light Phase Curves: Insights from Laboratory Data and Theory
• The first low-mass eclipsing binary within the fully convective zone from TMTS
• Composition of Transiting and Transiting-only super-Earths
• Atmospheric heat redistribution and collapse on tidally locked rocky planets
• Impact of Clouds on the Atmosphere-Mantle Interface of Sub-Neptunes
• A large sub-Neptune transiting the thick-disk M4V TOI-2406
• The impact of faculae on the radius determination of exoplanets: The case of the M-star GJ1214
• Improving exoplanet mass characterisation with Bayesian model selection using the Learned Harmonic Mean Estimator
• Rapid Formation of Super-Earths Around Low-Mass Stars
• Searching for Exosatellites Orbiting L and T Dwarfs: Connecting Planet Formation to Moon Formation and Finding New Temperate Worlds
• NEWS: the near-infrared Echelle for wideband spectroscopy