Rapid growth of gas-giant cores by pebble accretion

Abstract

The observed lifetimes of gaseous protoplanetary discs place strong constraints on gas and ice giant formation in the core accretion scenario. The approximately 10-Earth-mass solid core responsible for the attraction of the gaseous envelope has to form before gas dissipation in the protoplanetary disc is completed within 1-10 million years. Building up the core by collisions between km-sized planetesimals fails to meet this time-scale constraint, especially at wide stellar separations. Nonetheless, gas-giant planets are detected by direct imaging at wide orbital distances. In this paper, we numerically study the growth of cores by the accretion of cm-sized pebbles loosely coupled to the gas. We measure the accretion rate onto seed masses ranging from a large planetesimal to a fully grown 10-Earth-mass core and test different particle sizes. The numerical results are in good agreement with our analytic expressions, indicating the existence of two accretion regimes, one set by the azimuthal and radial particle drift for the lower seed masses and the other, for higher masses, by the velocity at the edge of the Hill sphere. In the former, the optimally accreted particle size increases with core mass, while in the latter the optimal size is centimeters, independent of core mass. We discuss the implications for rapid core growth of gas-giant and ice-giant cores. We conclude that pebble accretion can resolve the long-standing core accretion time-scale conflict. This requires a near-unity dust-to-gas ratio in the midplane, particle growth to mm and cm and the formation of massive planetesimals or low radial pressure support. The core growth time-scale is shortened by a factor 30-1,000 at 5 AU and by a factor 100-10,000 at 50 AU, compared to the gravitationally focused accretion of, respectively, low-scale-height planetesimal fragments or standard km-sized planetesimals.

Version accepted for publication in A&A

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• Fresh view of the hot brown dwarf HD 984 B through high-resolution spectroscopy
• Saving super-Earths: Interplay between pebble accretion and type I migration
• Formation of pebbles in (gravito-)viscous protoplanetary disks with various turbulent strengths
• Promoted Mass Growth of Multiple, Distant Giant Planets through Pebble Accretion and Planet-Planet Collision
• Breakthrough revisited: investigating the requirements for growth of dust beyond the bouncing barrier
• The Growth of Protoplanets via the Accretion of Small Bodies in Disks Perturbed by the Planetary Gravity
• The $\beta$ Pictoris b Hill sphere transit campaign. Paper I: Photometric limits to dust and rings
• Dynamical Evolution of Closely Packed Multiple Planetary Systems Subject to Atmospheric Mass-Loss
• Gap opening by planets in discs with magnetised winds
• Growing the seeds of pebble accretion through planetesimal accretion
• Stellar abundance of binary stars: their role in determining the formation location of super-Earths and ice giants
• Ejection of close-in super-Earths around low-mass stars in the giant impact stage
• Envelopes of embedded super-Earths I. Two-dimensional simulations
• Restrictions on the Growth of Gas Giant Cores via Pebble Accretion
• Multiple Populations of Extrasolar Gas Giants
• Effects of pebble accretion on the growth and composition of planetesimals in the inner Solar System
• Atmospheric characterization of the super-Jupiter HIP 99770 b with KPIC
• Sublimation of refractory minerals in the gas envelopes of accreting rocky planets
• Migrating Planets into Ultra-Short-Period Orbits during Episodic Accretion Events
• Modification of the radioactive heat budget of Earth-like exoplanets by the loss of primordial atmospheres
• Formation of wide-orbit giant planets in protoplanetary disks with a decreasing pebble flux
• Solving for the 2D Water Snowline with Hydrodynamic Simulations. Emergence of gas outflow, water cycle and temperature plateau
• Limits on Protoplanet Growth by Accretion of Small Solids
• Gas-Assisted Growth of Protoplanets in a Turbulent Medium
• Comparisons of the core and mantle compositions of earth analogs from different terrestrial planet formation scenarios
• Turbulence, Transport and Waves in Ohmic Dead Zones
• Orbital Circularization of a Planet Accreting Disk Gas: Formation of Distant Jupiters in Circular Orbits based on Core Accretion Model
• Global Modeling of Nebulae With Particle Growth, Drift, and Evaporation Fronts. II. The Influence of Porosity on Solids Evolution
• On the suppression of giant planet formation around low-mass stars in clustered environments
• Numerical study of dynamical friction with thermal effects -- I. Comparison to linear theory
• Planetary core formation via multi-species pebble accretion
• Efficient Dust Radial Drift Around Young Intermediate-mass Stars
• Growth after the streaming instability: The radial distance dependence of the planetary growth
• A giant planet shaping the disk around the very low-mass star CIDA 1
• Coagulation Calculations of Icy Planet Formation Around 0.1--0.5~\msun\ Stars: Super-Earths From Large Planetestimals
• Dust-Gas Coupling in Turbulence- and MHD Wind-Driven Protoplanetary Disks: Implications for Rocky Planet Formation
• Planet population synthesis: The role of stellar encounters
• A potential site for wide-orbit giant planet formation in the IM Lup disk
• The quest for Magrathea planets I: formation of second generation exoplanets around double white dwarfs
• Spin of protoplanets generated by pebble accretion: Influences of protoplanet-induced gas flow
• The growth of super-Earths: the importance of a self-consistent treatment of disc structures and pebble accretion
• Non-extensive super-cluster states in aggregation with fragmentation
• Limits on the number of primordial Scattered Disk objects at Pluto mass and higher from the absence of their dynamical signatures on the present day trans-Neptunian Populations
• Influences of protoplanet-induced three-dimensional gas flow on pebble accretion $\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I}$. Headwind regime
• Forming Chondrites in a Solar Nebula with Magnetically Induced Turbulence
• A brief overview of planet formation
• Eccentricity driving of pebble accreting low-mass planets
• Filling in the Gaps: Can Gravitationally Unstable Discs Form the Seeds of Gas Giant Planets?
• Onset of oligarchic growth and implication for accretion histories of dwarf planets
• Extreme Pebble Accretion in Ringed Protoplanetary Discs
• Can the giant planets of the Solar System form via pebble accretion in a smooth protoplanetary disc?
• Transport, destruction and growth of pebbles in the gas envelope of a protoplanet
• Heavy-element Accretion by Proto-Jupiter in a Massive Planetesimal Disk, Revisited
• Formation of trans-Neptunian satellite systems at the stage of condensations
• Planetesimal and planet formation in transient dust traps
• Migration of gap-opening planets in 3D stellar-irradiated accretion disks
• Dynamical rearrangement of super-Earths during disk dispersal II. Assessment of the magnetospheric rebound model for planet formation scenarios
• Composition, Structure and Origin of the Moon
• The Gliese 86 Binary System: A Warm Jupiter Formed in a Disk Truncated at $\approx$2 AU
• The cosmochemistry of planetary systems
• On the origin of wide-orbit ALMA planets: giant protoplanets disrupted by their cores
• High-contrast imaging constraints on gas giant planet formation - The Herbig Ae/Be star opportunity
• Terrestrial-type planet formation: Comparing different types of initial conditions
• On the Estimation of Circumbinary Orbital Properties
• Chemical evolution in planet-forming regions with growing grains
• Migration traps as the root cause of the Kepler dichotomy
• Circumstellar discs: What will be next?
• There is no disk mass budget problem of planet formation
• United Theory of Planet Formation (I): Tandem Regime
• On the Origin of Banded Structure in Dusty Protoplanetary Discs: HL Tau and TW Hya
• Characterizing K2 Candidate Planetary Systems Orbiting Low-Mass Stars III: A High Mass & Low Envelope Fraction for the Warm Neptune K2-55b
• Dust accretion in binary systems: implications for planets and transition discs
• Grain Growth in the Dust Ring with Crescent around Very Low Mass Star ZZ Tau IRS with JVLA
• Accreting luminous low-mass planets escape from migration traps at pressure bumps
• A quantification of hydrodynamical effects on protoplanetary dust growth
• Formation of Giant Planets
• Dynamics of Porous Dust Aggregates and Gravitational Instability of Their Disk
• The Heavy-element Content Trend of Planets: A Tracer of their Formation Sites
• Planetesimal fragmentation and giant planet formation II: dependencies with planetesimal relative velocities and compositions
• Formation of the First Planetesimals via the Streaming Instability in Globally Turbulent Protoplanetary Disks?
• Photoevaporation Does Not Create a Pileup of Giant Planets at 1 AU
• The role of density perturbation on planet formation by pebble accretion
• A Pluto-Charon Sonata III. Growth of Charon from a Circum-Pluto Ring of Debris
• Nonlinear Outcome of Coagulation Instability in Protoplanetary Disks II: Dust Ring Formation Mediated by Backreaction and Fragmentation
• On the interaction of pebble accreting embryos with the gaseous disc: importance of thermal forces
• Formation of multiple-planet systems in resonant chains around M dwarfs
• Dynamics of multiple protoplanets embedded in gas/pebble disks and its dependence on $\Sigma$ and $\nu$ parameters
• Planetesimal formation via the streaming instability in simulations of infall dominated young disks
• Stability of Hydrides in Sub-Neptune Exoplanets with Thick Hydrogen-Rich Atmospheres
• Erosion driven size-redistribution of protoplanetary disk solids and the onset of streaming Instability and Pebble Accretion
• Destruction of eccentric planetesimals by ram pressure and erosion
• How the formation of Neptune shapes the Kuiper belt
• Building Earth with pebbles made of chondritic components
• Super-Earth formation in systems with cold giants
• Composition constraints of the TRAPPIST-1 planets from their formation
• Unveiling wide-orbit companions to K-type stars in Sco-Cen with Gaia EDR3
• Accretion of eroding pebbles and planetesimals in planetary envelopes
• Dust ring and gap formation by gas flow induced by low-mass planets embedded in protoplanetary disks $\mathrm{I}$. Steady-state model
• Millimeter Dust Emission and Planetary Dynamics in the HD 106906 System
• Dynamic evolution of major element chemistry in protoplanetary disks and its implications for chondrite formation
• Structure of Protoplanetary Discs with Magnetically-driven Winds
• How Flow Isolation May Set the Mass Scale for Super-Earth Planets
• Binary planet formation by gas-assisted encounters of planetary embryos
• Thermal Processing of Solids Encountering a Young Jovian Core
• On the evolution of pebble-accreting planets in evolving protoplanetary discs
• Collisional Growth Within the Solar System's Primordial Planetesimal Disk and the Timing of the Giant Planet Instability
• Conglomeration of kilometre-sized planetesimals
• On the origin of transition disk cavities: Pebble-accreting protoplanets vs Super-Jupiters
• Hidden under a warm blanket: If planets existed in protostellar disks, they would hardly produce observable substructures
• Prograde spin-up during gravitational collapse
• The paradox of youth for ALMA planet candidates
• Orbital structure of planetary systems formed by giant impacts: stellar mass dependence
• Pebble accretion in self-gravitating protostellar discs
• Increased isolation mass for pebble accreting planetary cores in pressure maxima of protoplanetary discs
• Accretion of aerodynamically large pebbles
• Terrestrial planet formation during giant planet formation and giant planet migration I: The first 5 million years
• Hiding in the Shadows II: Collisional Dust as Exoplanet Markers
• From Planetesimals to Dwarf Planets by Pebble Accretion
• Simulations of Small Solid Accretion onto Planetesimals in the Presence of Gas
• Changing disc compositions via internal photoevaporation II: M dwarf systems
• Giant planet formation via pebble accretion across different stellar masses
• WIde Separation Planets In Time (WISPIT): Two directly imaged exoplanets around the Sun-like stellar binary WISPIT 1
• Diversity of disc viscosities can explain the period ratios of resonant and non-resonant systems of hot super-Earths and mini-Neptunes
• The evolution of a circumplanetary disc with a dead zone
• On the survivability of a population of gas giant planets on wide orbits
• Delivery of icy planetesimals to inner planets in the Proxima Centauri planetary system
• C/O ratios in self-gravitating protoplanetary discs with dust evolution
• Solid Accretion onto Neptune-Mass Planets I: In-Situ Accretion and Constraints from the metallicity of Uranus and Neptune
• How disc initial conditions sculpt the atmospheric composition of giant planets
• Directly Detecting the Envelopes of Low-mass Planets Embedded In Protoplanetary Discs and The Case For TW Hydrae
• VLT/SPHERE survey for exoplanets around young, early-type stars including systems with multi-belt architectures
• Morphology and dynamical stability of self-gravitating vortices: Numerical simulations
• Planetesimal Growth in Evolving Protoplanetary Disks: Constraints from the Pebble Supply
• The Properties of Planetesimal Collisions under Jupiter's Perturbation and the Application to Chondrule Formation via Impact Jetting
• The evolution of the flux-size relationship in protoplanetary discs by viscous evolution and radial pebble drift
• Evidence of a primordial isotopic gradient in the inner region of the solar protoplanetary disc
• Chondrule Accretion with a Growing Protoplanet
• Forming equal mass planetary binaries via pebble accretion
• The PAIRS project: a global formation model for planets in binaries. I. Effect of disc truncation on the growth of S-type planets
• Exploring the conditions for forming planetesimals by the streaming instability and planetary systems by pebble accretion
• Planet Formation by Gas-Assisted Accretion of Small Solids
• Planets, debris and their host metallicity correlations
• Early Solar System Turbulence Constrained by High Oxidation States of the Oldest Non-Carbonaceous Planetesimals
• Hybrid methods in planetesimal dynamics: Formation of protoplanetary systems and the mill condition
• Disk dissipation, giant planet formation and star-formation-rate fluctuations in the past three-million-year history of Gould's Belt
• Motion of Planetesimals in the Hill Sphere of the Star Proxima Centauri
• The influence of a static planetary atmosphere on spin transfer during pebble accretion
• Architecture of planetary systems predicted from protoplanetary disks observed with ALMA II: evolution outcomes and dynamical stability
• Interaction of infalling solid bodies with primordial atmospheres of disk-embedded planets
• Interpreting the atmospheric composition of exoplanets: sensitivity to planet formation assumptions
• The Effect of Accretion Rate and Composition on the Structure of Ice-rich Super-Earths
• Occurrence rates of accreting companions from a new method for computing emission-line survey sensitivity: application to the H-alpha Giant Accreting Protoplanet Survey
• Diversity of Exoplanets
• The Moon-forming Impact as a Constraint for the Inner Solar System's Formation
• Solid accretion onto planetary cores in radiative disks
• Possible formation pathways for the low density Neptune-mass planet HAT-P-26b
• Water worlds in N-body simulations with fragmentation in systems without gaseous giants
• Forming Earth-like and Low-Mass Rocky Exoplanets Through Pebble and Planetesimal Accretion
• Diversity in planetary architectures from pebble accretion: Water delivery to the habitable zone with pebble snow
• On the dynamics of pebbles in protoplanetary disks with magnetically-driven winds
• Long-term Hydrodynamic Simulations on the Planetesimals Trapped in the First-order Mean Motion Resonances
• Interior dynamics of envelopes around disk-embedded planets
• Migration of celestial bodies in the Solar system and in several exoplanetary systems
• Compositional Turbulence and Layering in the Gaseous Envelopes of Forming Planets
• Thermal emission spectra of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-33 b
• A break in planet occurrence near the pebble isolation mass should be observable by the Roman microlensing survey
• A planetary-mass candidate imaged in the Young Suns Exoplanet Survey
• The effect of late giant collisions on the atmospheres of protoplanets and the formation of cold sub-Saturns
• A multi-fluid approach for polydisperse pebble accretion: From particles to fluids, establishing the multifluid framework
• Direct Imaging of Irregular Satellite Disks in Scattered Light
• Gas dynamics around dust asymmetries in turbulent disks
• A semi-analytical model of the outer structure of protoplanetary discs formed by the collapse of a rotating molecular cloud
• A close-encounter method for simulating the dynamics of planetesimals
• Observations of highly inclined disks with ALMA. Results from 12CO gas and continuum observations