Chemical enrichment of giant planets and discs due to pebble drift

Abstract

Chemical compositions of giant planets provide a means to constrain how and where they form. Traditionally, super-stellar elemental abundances in giant planets were thought to be possible due to accretion of metal-rich solids. Such enrichments are accompanied by oxygen-rich compositions (i.e. C/O below the disc's value, assumed to be solar, C/O=0.54). Without solid accretion the planets are expected to have sub-solar metallicity, but high C/O ratios. This arises because the solids are dominated by oxygen-rich species, e.g. H${}_2$O and CO${}_2$, which freeze out in the disk earlier than CO, leaving the gas metal poor but carbon-rich. Here we demonstrate that super-solar metallicities can be achieved by gas accretion alone when growth and radial drift of pebbles are considered in protoplanetary discs. Through this mechanism planets may simultaneously acquire super-solar metallicities and super-solar C/O ratios. This happens because the pebbles transport volatile species inward as they migrate through the disc, enriching the gas at snow lines where the volatiles sublimate. Furthermore, the planet's composition can be used to constrain where it formed. Since high C/H and C/O ratios cannot be created by accreting solids, it may be possible to distinguish between formation via pebble accretion and planetesimal accretion by the level of solid enrichment. Finally, we expect that Jupiter's C/O ratio should be near or above solar if its enhanced carbon abundance came through accreting metal rich gas. Thus Juno's measurement of Jupiter's C/O ratio should determine whether Jupiter accreted its metals from carbon rich gas or oxygen rich solids.

arXiv commentAccepted for publication in MNRAS. 20 pages. Key figures are Figs. 2 and 11

References in corpus (89)

• The chemical composition of the Sun
• Interstellar Dust Grains
• Disk Frequencies and Lifetimes in Young Clusters
• A low mass for Mars from Jupiter's early gas-driven migration
• The effects of snowlines on C/O in planetary atmospheres
• Using FU Orionis Outbursts to Constrain Self-Regulated Protostellar Disk Models
• Rapid growth of gas-giant cores by pebble accretion
• A simple model for the evolution of the dust population in protoplanetary disks
• Formation of methyl formate and other organic species in the warm-up phase of hot molecular cores
• Models of Giant Planet formation with migration and disc evolution
• Gas- and dust evolution in protoplanetary disks
• Particle Stirring in Turbulent Gas Disks: Including Orbital Oscillations
• The effect of gas drag on the growth of protoplanets -- Analytical expressions for the accretion of small bodies in laminar disks
• A torque formula for non-isothermal Type I planetary migration - II. Effects of diffusion
• C/O ratio as a Dimension for Characterizing Exoplanetary Atmospheres
• Forming the cores of giant planets from the radial pebble flux in protoplanetary discs
• Separating gas-giant and ice-giant planets by halting pebble accretion
• Timescale of Mass Accretion in Pre-Main-Sequence Stars
• A Precise Water Abundance Measurement for the Hot Jupiter WASP-43b
• Radiation thermo-chemical models of protoplanetary disks I. Hydrostatic disk structure and inner rim
• Water, O2 and Ice in Molecular Clouds
• High-resolution simulations of the final assembly of Earth-like planets 1: terrestrial accretion and dynamics
• Dynamics of Solids in the Midplane of Protoplanetary Disks: Implications for Planetesimal Formation
• The Evolution of the Water Distribution in a Viscous Protoplanetary Disk
• The stickiness of micrometer-sized water-ice particles
• Evolution of protoplanetary disks: Constraints from DM Tauri and GM Aurigae
• A dual-frequency sub-arcsecond study of proto-planetary disks at mm wavelengths: First evidence for radial variations of the dust properties
• Compositional diversity in the atmospheres of hot Neptunes, with application to GJ 436b
• Towards Chemical Constraints on Hot Jupiter Migration
• The TW Hya Disk at 870 microns: Comparison of CO and Dust Radial Structures
• Dust size distributions in coagulation/fragmentation equilibrium: Numerical solutions and analytical fits
• Planetesimal formation near the snowline: in or out?
• Constraints on the Radial Variation of Grain Growth in the AS 209 Circumstellar Disk
• Large dust particles in disks around T Tauri stars
• Challenges in Forming Planets by Gravitational Instability: Disk Irradiation and Clump Migration, Accretion & Tidal Destructio
• A Systematic Retrieval Analysis of Secondary Eclipse Spectra II: A Uniform Analysis of Eight Planets and Their C to O Ratios
• VULCAN: an Open-Source, Validated Chemical Kinetics Python Code for Exoplanetary Atmospheres
• On the Minimum Core Mass for Giant Planet Formation at Wide Separations
• Dust Growth and Settling in Protoplanetary Disks and Disk Spectral Energy Distributions. I. Laminar Disks
• Evidence for a correlation between mass accretion rates onto young stars and the mass of their protoplanetary disks
• A Significantly Low CO Abundance Toward the TW Hya Protoplanetary Disk: A Path to Active Carbon Chemistry?
• A multi-wavelength analysis for interferometric (sub-)mm observations of protoplanetary disks: radial constraints on the dust properties and the disk structure
• The minimum mass of detectable planets in protoplanetary discs and the derivation of planetary masses from high resolution observations
• Cavity opening by a giant planet in a protoplanetary disc and effects on planetary migration
• Hydrocarbon emission rings in protoplanetary disks induced by dust evolution
• Atmospheric Signatures of Giant Exoplanet Formation by Pebble Accretion
• The Last Gasp of Gas Giant Planet Formation: A Spitzer Study of the 5 Myr-old Cluster NGC 2362
• Setting the volatile composition of (exo)planet-building material. Does chemical evolution in disk midplanes matter?
• Transmission Spectroscopy of the Hot-Jupiter WASP-12b from 0.7 to 5 microns
• Carbon-rich Giant Planets: Atmospheric Chemistry, Thermal Inversions, Spectra, and Formation conditions
• Towards Planetesimals in the Disk around TW Hya: 3.5 centimeter Dust Emission
• H2O abundances in the atmospheres of three hot Jupiters
• Jupiter's composition: sign of a (relatively) late formation in a chemically evolved protosolar disk
• Rocky core solubility in Jupiter and giant exoplanets
• ALMA observations of the molecular gas in the debris disk of the 30 Myr old star HD 21997
• Global Models of Planet Formation and Evolution
• Spatial mapping of ices in the Oph-F core: A direct measurement of CO depletion and the formation of CO2
• Fingerprints of giant planets in the photospheres of Herbig stars
• Time-dependent models of the structure and evolution of self-gravitating protoplanetary discs
• On the Migration of Jupiter and Saturn: Constraints from Linear Models of Secular Resonant Coupling with the Terrestrial Planets
• Excess C/O and C/H in outer protoplanetary disk gas
• CO and N${}_2$ desorption energies from water ice
• The Deep Water Abundance on Jupiter: New Constraints from Thermochemical Kinetics and Diffusion Modeling
• Composition of Early Planetary Atmospheres I: Connecting Disk Astrochemistry to the Formation of Planetary Atmospheres
• Five steps in the evolution from protoplanetary to debris disk
• Investigating grain growth in disks around southern T Tauri stars at millimetre wavelengths
• Terrestrial Planet Formation at Home and Abroad
• On The Possibility of Enrichment and Differentiation in Gas Giants During Birth by Disk Instability
• Redistribution of CO at the Location of the CO Ice Line in evolving Gas and Dust Disks
• CO mass upper limits in the Fomalhaut ring - the importance of NLTE excitation in debris discs and future prospects with ALMA
• Growth and migration of solids in evolving protostellar disks I: Methods and Analytical tests
• Volatile depletion in the TW Hydrae disk atmosphere
• The Jeans Mass as a Fundamental Measure of Self-Gravitating Disc Fragmentation and Initial Fragment Mass
• Faint disks around classical T Tauri stars: small but dense enough to form planets?
• Planetary Core Formation with Collisional Fragmentation and Atmosphere to Form Gas Giant Planets
• Dust and gas mixtures with multiple grain species - a one-fluid approach
• C/O and O/H Ratios Suggest Some Hot Jupiters Originate Beyond the Snow Line
• Measuring Jupiter's water abundance by Juno: the link between interior and formation models
• Gas Accretion onto a Protoplanet and Formation of a Gas Giant Planet
• External Photoevaporation of the Solar Nebula: Jupiter's Noble Gas Enrichments
• Early Dynamical Instabilities in the Giant Planet Systems
• Limits on the location of planetesimal formation in self-gravitating protostellar discs
• Gas lines from the 5-Myr old optically thin disk around HD141569A. Herschel observations and modeling
• The hybrid disks: a search and study to better understand evolution of disks
• Efficiency of Planetesimal Ablation in Giant Planetary Envelopes
• Observations and modelling of CO and [CI] in disks. First detections of [CI] and constraints on the carbon abundance
• The first 40 million years of circumstellar disk evolution: the signature of terrestrial planet formation
• X-Ray Determination of the Variable Rate of Mass Accretion onto TW Hydrae
• A pebbles accretion model with chemistry and implications for the solar system

Cited by in corpus (149)

• Exoplanetary Atmospheres: Key Insights, Challenges and Prospects
• Equilibrium chemistry down to 100 K - Impact of silicates and phyllosilicates on carbon/oxygen ratio
• Observing the Atmospheres of Known Temperate Earth-sized Planets with JWST
• Mass-Metallicity Trends in Transiting Exoplanets from Atmospheric Abundances of H${}_2$O, Na, and K
• H${}_2$O abundances and cloud properties in ten hot giant exoplanets
• A solar C/O and sub-solar metallicity in a hot Jupiter atmosphere
• Five carbon- and nitrogen-bearing species in a hot giant planet's atmosphere
• Formation of planetary systems by pebble accretion and migration: Growth of gas giants
• Molecules with ALMA at Planet-forming Scales (MAPS) V: CO gas distributions
• How drifting and evaporating pebbles shape giant planets I: Heavy element content and atmospheric C/O
• CO Depletion in Protoplanetary Disks: A Unified Picture Combining Physical Sequestration and Chemical Processing
• Planet-forming material in a protoplanetary disc: the interplay between chemical evolution and pebble drift
• Transport of CO in Protoplanetary Disks: Consequences of Pebble Formation, Settling, and Radial Drift
• CO destruction in protoplanetary disk midplanes: inside versus outside the CO snow surface
• Where is the Water? Jupiter-like C/H ratio but strong H${}_2$O depletion found on $\tau$ Boötis b using SPIRou
• Hydrogen Cyanide in Nitrogen-Rich Atmospheres of Rocky Exoplanets
• The time evolution of dusty protoplanetary disc radii: observed and physical radii differ
• Five key exoplanet questions answered via the analysis of 25 hot Jupiter atmospheres in eclipse
• Connecting planet formation and astrochemistry: A main sequence for C/O in hot-exoplanetary atmospheres
• How drifting and evaporating pebbles shape giant planets II: Volatiles and refractories in atmospheres
• The evolution of dust in discs influenced by external photoevaporation
• Influence of sub- and super-solar metallicities on the compositions of solid planetary building blocks
• Molecules with ALMA at Planet-forming Scales (MAPS). VII. Sub-stellar O/H and C/H and super-stellar C/O in planet feeding gas
• Breaking Degeneracies in Formation Histories by Measuring Refractory Content in Gas Giants
• The origin of the high metallicity of close-in giant exoplanets: Combined effect of the resonant and aerodynamic shepherding
• Molecules with ALMA at Planet-forming Scales (MAPS). IX. Distribution and Properties of the Large Organic Molecules HC${}_3$N, CH${}_3$CN, and $c$-C${}_3$H${}_2$
• Jupiter formed as a pebble pile around the N${}_2$ ice line
• Connecting planet formation and astrochemistry: Refractory carbon depletion leading to super-stellar C/O in giant planetary atmospheres
• Deep exploration of the planets HR 8799 b, c, and d with moderate resolution spectroscopy
• JWST transmission spectroscopy of HD 209458b: a super-solar metallicity, a very low C/O, and no evidence of CH4, HCN, or C2H2
• Fingerprints of giant planets in the composition of solar twins
• Predicted diversity in water content of terrestrial exoplanets orbiting M dwarfs
• Close-in ice lines and the super-stellar C/O ratio in discs around very low-mass stars
• On the secular evolution of the ratio between gas and dust radii in protoplanetary discs
• The chemistry of protoplanetary fragments formed via gravitational instabilities
• Assessing the C/O Ratio Formation Diagnostic: A Potential Trend with Companion Mass
• The eccentricity distribution of giant planets and their relation to super-Earths in the pebble accretion scenario
• Dry or water world? How the water contents of inner sub-Neptunes constrain giant planet formation and the location of the water ice line
• A Lagrangian Model for Dust Evolution in Protoplanetary Disks: Formation of Wet and Dry Planetesimals at Different Stellar Masses
• Do Metal-Rich Stars Make Metal-Rich Planets? New Insights on Giant Planet Formation from Host Star Abundances
• Where can a Trappist-1 planetary system be produced?
• Population synthesis of exocometary gas around A stars
• Prospects for Characterizing the Haziest Sub-Neptune Exoplanets with High Resolution Spectroscopy
• A dusty origin for the correlation between protoplanetary disc accretion rates and dust masses
• Jupiter's formation in the vicinity of the amorphous ice snowline
• Excess C/H in Protoplanetary Disk Gas from Icy Pebble Drift across the CO Snowline
• Sulphur monoxide emission tracing an embedded planet in the HD 100546 protoplanetary disk
• On the millimetre continuum flux-radius correlation of proto-planetary discs
• The evolution of protoplanetary discs in star formation and feedback simulations
• The composition of hot Jupiter atmospheres assembled within chemically evolved protoplanetary discs
• Evidence that the Hot Jupiter WASP-77 A b Formed Beyond Its Parent Protoplanetary Disk's H2O Ice Line
• CRIRES+ and ESPRESSO reveal an atmosphere enriched in volatiles relative to refractories on the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-121b
• Efficiency of radial transport of ices in protoplanetary disks probed with infrared observations: the case of CO${}_2$
• On dust evolution in planet-forming discs in binary systems. I -- Theoretical and numerical modelling: radial drift is faster in binary discs
• Snow-lines can be thermally unstable
• How drifting and evaporating pebbles shape giant planets III: The formation of WASP-77A b and $\tau$ Boötis b
• Keck/KPIC Emission Spectroscopy of WASP-33b
• Nitrogen as a Tracer of Giant Planet Formation. I.: A Universal Deep Adiabatic Profile and Semi-analytical Predictions of Disequilibrium Ammonia Abundances in Warm Exoplanetary Atmospheres
• Jupiter's "Cold" Formation in the Protosolar Disk Shadow: An Explanation for the Planet's Uniformly Enriched Atmosphere
• TOI-1130: A photodynamical analysis of a hot Jupiter in resonance with an inner low-mass planet
• An Unusual Transmission Spectrum for the Sub-Saturn KELT-11b Suggestive of a Sub-Solar Water Abundance
• Exploring the link between star and planet formation with Ariel
• BOWIE-ALIGN: How formation and migration histories of giant planets impact atmospheric compositions
• Moderate-Resolution $K$-Band Spectroscopy of Substellar Companion $\kappa$ Andromedae b
• Depletion of gaseous CO in protoplanetary disks by surface-energy-regulated ice formation
• Dust clearing by radial drift in evolving protoplanetary discs
• SimAb: A simple, fast and flexible model to assess the effects of planet formation on the atmospheric composition of gas giants
• Unlocking CO Depletion in Protoplanetary Disks II. Primordial C/H Predictions Inside the CO Snowline
• System-level fractionation of carbon from disk and planetesimal processing
• Enriching inner discs and giant planets with heavy elements
• The dry and carbon poor inner disk of TW Hya: evidence for a massive icy dust trap
• Chemical Evolution in a Protoplanetary Disk within Planet Carved Gaps and Dust Rings
• Effect of MHD wind-driven disk evolution on the observed sizes of protoplanetary disks
• Measuring Elemental Abundances of JWST Target Stars for Exoplanet Characterization I. FGK Stars
• Possible Atmospheric Diversity of Low Mass Exoplanets, some Central Aspects
• CO2-rich protoplanetary discs as a probe of dust radial drift & trapping
• If you like C/O variations, you should have put a ring on it
• Aiolos- A multi-purpose 1-D hydrodynamics code for planetary atmospheres
• Burned to ashes: How the thermal decomposition of refractory organics in the inner protoplanetary disc impacts the gas-phase C/O ratio
• The Hubble PanCET Program: A Metal-rich Atmosphere for the Inflated Hot Jupiter HAT-P-41b
• Investigating the asymmetric chemistry in the disk around the young star HD 142527
• Evolution of the reservoirs of volatiles in the protosolar nebula
• Imaging the water snowline in a protostellar envelope with H${}^{13}$CO${}^{+}$
• A sub-solar metallicity on the ultra-short period planet HIP 65Ab
• BOWIE-ALIGN: JWST reveals hints of planetesimal accretion and complex sulphur chemistry in the atmosphere of the misaligned hot Jupiter WASP-15b
• Water UV-shielding in the terrestrial planet-forming zone: Implications for carbon dioxide emission
• MINDS. JWST-MIRI reveals a peculiar CO${}_2$-rich chemistry in the drift-dominated disk CX Tau
• Measuring elemental abundance ratios in protoplanetary disks at millimeter wavelengths
• Water Enrichment from Pebble Drift in Disks with Gap-forming Planets
• Key Atmospheric Signatures for Identifying the Source Reservoirs of Volatiles in Uranus and Neptune
• Stellar multiplicity affects the correlation between proto-planetary disc masses and accretion rates: binaries explain high-accretors in Upper Sco
• The impact of pre-main sequence stellar evolution on midplane snowline locations and C/O in planet forming discs
• The possible formation of Jupiter from supersolar gas
• The origin of the high metallicity of close-in giant exoplanets II The nature of the sweet spot for accretion
• Measuring Tracers of Planet Formation in the Atmosphere of WASP-77A b: Sub-stellar O/H and C/H ratios, with a stellar C/O ratio and a potentially Super-stellar Ti/H ratio
• Molecular tracers of planet formation in the atmospheres of hot Jupiters
• On the time evolution of the $M_{\mathrm{d}}-M_{\star }$ and $\dot{M}-M_{\star }$ correlations for protoplanetary discs: the viscous timescale increases with stellar mass
• BOWIE-ALIGN: A JWST comparative survey of aligned vs misaligned hot Jupiters to test the dependence of atmospheric composition on migration history
• Stellar abundance of binary stars: their role in determining the formation location of super-Earths and ice giants
• Inside-Out Planet Formation. VII. Astrochemical Models of Protoplanetary Disks and Implications for Planetary Compositions
• Changing disc compositions via internal photoevaporation I: Solar-mass stars
• Disentangling protoplanetary disk gas mass and carbon depletion through combined atomic and molecular tracers
• The Molecular Composition of Shadowed Protosolar Disk Midplanes beyond the Water Snowline
• On dust evolution in planet-forming discs in binary systems. II -- Comparison with Taurus and $\rho$ Ophiuchus (sub-)millimetre observations: discs in binaries have small dust sizes
• High-resolution ALMA observations of compact discs in the wide-binary system Sz 65 and Sz 66
• Planet formation in the PDS 70 system: Constraining the atmospheric chemistry of PDS 70b and c
• Testing protoplanetary disc evolution with CO fluxes. A proof of concept in Lupus and Upper Sco
• Locked In Ice: how Pebble Drift and Volatile Entrapment can Significantly Impact Carbon and Oxygen Ratios in Evolving Protoplanetary Discs
• ExoLyn: a golden mean approach to multi-species cloud modelling in atmospheric retrieval
• Hazy with a chance of star spots: constraining the atmosphere of the young planet, K2-33b
• Tracing the formation and migration history: molecular signatures in the atmosphere of misaligned hot Jupiter WASP-94Ab using JWST NIRSpec/G395H
• Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Exoplanet Atmospheres I. Thermochemical Equilibrium Models
• The compositions of the HR 8799 planets reflect accretion of both solids and metal-enriched gas
• CO isotopolog line fluxes of viscously evolving disks: cold CO conversion insufficient to explain observed low fluxes
• A low accretion efficiency of planetesimals formed at planetary gap edges
• Connecting Planetary Composition with Formation
• Chemical transformation of CO in evolving protoplanetary discs across stellar masses: a route to C-rich inner regions
• An inherited complex organic molecule reservoir in a warm planet-hosting disk
• Circumstellar discs: What will be next?
• Chemical enrichment of the planet forming region as probed by accretion
• An APEX search for carbon emission from NGC 1977 proplyds
• Planet formation in chemically diverse and evolving discs -- I. Composition of planetary building blocks
• Global Modeling of Nebulae With Particle Growth, Drift, and Evaporation Fronts. III. Redistribution of Refractories and Volatiles
• LRG-BEASTS: Evidence for clouds in the transmission spectrum of HATS-46 b
• How external photo-evaporation changes the chemical composition of the inner disc
• The solar abundance problem and eMSTOs in clusters
• Strong NUV Refractory Absorption and Dissociated Water in the Hubble Transmission Spectrum of the Ultra Hot Jupiter KELT-20 b
• Multi-frequency analysis of the ALMA and VLA high resolution continuum observations of the substructured disc around CI Tau. Preference for sub-mm-sized low-porosity amorphous carbon grains
• The Hot-Neptune Initiative (HONEI) I. Two hot sub-Neptunes on a close-in, eccentric orbit (TOI-5800 b) and a farther-out, circular orbit (TOI-5817 b)
• The interplay between forming planets and photoevaporating discs II: Wind-driven gas redistribution
• Osiris revisited: Confirming a solar metallicity and low C/O in HD 209458b
• Changing disc compositions via internal photoevaporation II: M dwarf systems
• Lessons from Hubble and Spitzer: 1D Self-Consistent Model Grids for 19 Hot Jupiter Emission Spectra
• C/O ratios in self-gravitating protoplanetary discs with dust evolution
• How disc initial conditions sculpt the atmospheric composition of giant planets
• A major asymmetric ice trap in a planet-forming disk: II. prominent SO and SO2 pointing to C/O < 1
• The evolution of the $M_{\mathrm{d}}-M_{\star }$ and $\dot{M}-M_{\star }$ correlations traces protoplanetary disc dispersal
• An Early Look at the Performance of IGRINS-2 at Gemini-North with Application to the ultrahot Jupiter, WASP-33 b
• Detection of CO${}_2$, CO, and H${}_2$O in the atmosphere of the warm sub-Saturn HAT-P-12b
• Timescales diagnostics for saving viscous and MHD-driven dusty discs from external photoevaporation
• Interpreting the atmospheric composition of exoplanets: sensitivity to planet formation assumptions
• Models and Observational Predictions of Dust Traps in Protoplanetary Discs
• How leaky? A large parameter study of leaky dust traps to quantify the transport of pebbles and ice in protoplanetary discs
• Icy Volatile Enhancements in Evolving Protoplanetary Disks
• Thermal emission spectra of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-33 b
• JWST unveils a high mean molecular weight atmosphere for mini-Neptune TOI-1130b: Evidence for formation beyond the water ice line
• Modelling the secular evolution of proto-planetary disc dust sizes -- A comparison between the viscous and magnetic wind case
• Heavy element enrichment of gas in surface-accretion disks: A possible origin of the mass-metallicity anti-correlation in exoplanets
• Linking Outer Disk Pebble Dynamics and Gaps to Inner Disk Water Enrichment