From Dust to Planets I: Planetesimal and Embryo Formation

Abstract

Planet formation models begin with proto-embryos and planetesimals already fully formed, missing out a crucial step, the formation of planetesimals/proto-embryos. In this work, we include prescriptions for planetesimal and proto-embryo formation arising from pebbles becoming trapped in short-lived pressure bumps, in thermally evolving viscous discs to examine the sizes and distributions of proto-embryos and planetesimals throughout the disc. We find that planetesimal sizes increase with orbital distance, from ~10 km close to the star to hundreds of kilometres further away. Proto-embryo masses are also found to increase with orbital radius, ranging from $10^{-6}{M}_{\oplus }$ around the iceline, to $10^{-3}{M}_{\oplus }$ near the orbit of Pluto. We include prescriptions for pebble and planetesimal accretion to examine the masses that proto-embryos can attain. Close to the star, planetesimal accretion is efficient due to small planetesimals, whilst pebble accretion is efficient where pebble sizes are fragmentation limited, but inefficient when drift dominated due to low accretion rates before the pebble supply diminishes. Exterior to the iceline, planetesimal accretion becomes inefficient due to increasing planetesimal eccentricities, whilst pebble accretion becomes more efficient as the initial proto-embryo masses increase, allowing them to significantly grow before the pebble supply is depleted. Combining both scenarios allows for more massive proto-embryos at larger distances, since the accretion of planetesimals allows pebble accretion to become more efficient, allowing giant planet cores to form at distances upto 10 au. By including more realistic initial proto-embryo and planetesimal sizes, as well as combined accretion scenarios, should allow for a more complete understanding in the beginning to end process of how planets and planetary systems form.

arXiv commentAccepted for publication in MNRAS. 21 Pages, 15 Figures

References in corpus (87)

• Disk Frequencies and Lifetimes in Young Clusters
• Seven temperate terrestrial planets around the nearby ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1
• A terrestrial planet candidate in a temperate orbit around Proxima Centauri
• Rapid planetesimal formation in turbulent circumstellar discs
• Streaming Instabilities in Protoplanetary Disks
• The Occurrence and Architecture of Exoplanetary Systems
• Using FU Orionis Outbursts to Constrain Self-Regulated Protostellar Disk Models
• Rapid growth of gas-giant cores by pebble accretion
• A simple model for the evolution of the dust population in protoplanetary disks
• Gas- and dust evolution in protoplanetary disks
• Particle Stirring in Turbulent Gas Disks: Including Orbital Oscillations
• The effect of gas drag on the growth of protoplanets -- Analytical expressions for the accretion of small bodies in laminar disks
• Extrasolar planet population synthesis I: Method, formation tracks and mass-distance distribution
• Asteroids Were Born Big
• A torque formula for non-isothermal Type I planetary migration - II. Effects of diffusion
• Forming the cores of giant planets from the radial pebble flux in protoplanetary discs
• Separating gas-giant and ice-giant planets by halting pebble accretion
• A torque formula for non-isothermal Type I planetary migration - I. Unsaturated horseshoe drag
• Particle Clumping and Planetesimal Formation Depend Strongly on Metallicity
• Zonal Flows and Long-Lived Axisymmetric Pressure Bumps in Magnetorotational Turbulence
• Photoevaporation of Circumstellar Disks by FUV, EUV and X-ray Radiation from the Central Star
• Dynamics of Solids in the Midplane of Protoplanetary Disks: Implications for Planetesimal Formation
• The Mass and Size Distribution of Planetesimals Formed by the Streaming Instability. I. The Role of Self-Gravity
• Dust filtration at gap edges: Implications for the spectral energy distributions of discs with embedded planets
• On the theory of disc photoevaporation
• Pebble isolation mass --- scaling law and implications for the formation of super-Earths and gas giants
• Concentrating small particles in protoplanetary disks through the streaming instability
• Halting Type I planet migration in non-isothermal disks
• Initial Conditions of Planet Formation: Lifetimes of Primordial Disks
• Planetesimal formation starts at the snow line
• Time-Evolution of Viscous Circumstellar Disks due to Photoevaporation by FUV, EUV and X-ray Radiation from the Central Star
• Formation of planetary systems by pebble accretion and migration: How the radial pebble flux determines a terrestrial-planet or super-Earth growth mode
• Dust dynamics during protoplanetary disc clearing
• Toward a Deterministic Model of Planetary Formation VII: Eccentricity Distribution of Gas Giants
• Fast accretion of small planetesimals by protoplanetary cores
• Initial mass function of planetesimals formed by the streaming instability
• On the formation of planetary systems via oligarchic growth in thermally evolving viscous discs
• Giant planet migration, disk evolution, and the origin of transitional disks
• Disk evolution in the solar neighborhood. I Disk frequencies from 1 to 100 Myr
• Adding particle collisions to the formation of asteroids and Kuiper belt objects via streaming instabilities
• The Impact of Dust Evolution and Photoevaporation on Disk Dispersal
• Planetesimal formation by the streaming instability in a photoevaporating disk
• Particle Concentration At Planet Induced Gap Edges and Vortices: I. Inviscid 3-D Hydro Disks
• Global MHD simulations of stratified and turbulent protoplanetary discs. I. Model properties
• Low-Mass Proto-Planet Migration in T-Tauri Alpha-Disks
• Viscous diffusion and photoevaporation of stellar disks
• Planet formation models: the interplay with the planetesimal disc
• Global Models of Planet Formation and Evolution
• Magnetic Flux Concentration and Zonal Flows in Magnetorotational Instability Turbulence
• Emergent Mesoscale Phenomena in Magnetized Accretion Disc Turbulence
• Gravoturbulent Planetesimal Formation: The Positive Effect of long-lived Zonal Flows
• Dynamical corotation torques on low-mass planets
• High-Temperature Ionization in Protoplanetary Disks
• Evidence for universality in the initial planetesimal mass function
• How much does turbulence change the pebble isolation mass for planet formation?
• The FRIED grid of mass loss rates for externally irradiated protoplanetary discs
• The Mass and Size Distribution of Planetesimals Formed by the Streaming Instability. II. The Effect of the Radial Gas Pressure Gradient
• Outward Migration of Jupiter and Saturn in Evolved Gaseous Disks
• Catching drifting pebbles I. Enhanced pebble accretion efficiencies for eccentric planets
• Terrestrial Planet Formation at Home and Abroad
• Demographics of Planetesimals Formed by the Streaming Instability
• The McDonald Observatory Planet Search: New Long-Period Giant Planets, and Two Interacting Jupiters in the HD 155358 System
• The interaction of a giant planet with a disc with MHD turbulence I: The initial turbulent disc models
• Deserts and pile-ups in the distribution of exoplanets due to photoevaporative disc clearing
• Rocky super-Earths or waterworlds: the interplay of planet migration, pebble accretion and disc evolution
• The evolution of dust in discs influenced by external photoevaporation
• Protoplanetary Disk Rings as Sites for Planetesimal Formation
• Planetesimal Population Synthesis: Pebble Flux Regulated Planetesimal Formation
• 3D-MHD simulations of an accretion disk with star-disk boundary layer
• Formation and structure of the three Neptune-mass planets system around HD69830
• Pebble-driven Planet Formation around Very Low-mass Stars and Brown Dwarfs
• On the formation of compact planetary systems via concurrent core accretion and migration
• Giant planet formation in radially structured protoplanetary discs
• Pebbles versus Planetesimals: The case of Trappist-1
• Planet formation and migration near the silicate sublimation front in protoplanetary disks
• Growth after the streaming instability: from planetesimal accretion to pebble accretion
• Pebbles versus planetesimals: the outcomes of population synthesis models
• Azimuthal and Vertical Streaming Instability at High Dust-to-gas Ratios and on the Scales of Planetesimal Formation
• The impact of pebble flux regulated planetesimal formation on giant planet formation
• In situ accretion of gaseous envelopes on to planetary cores embedded in evolving protoplanetary discs
• Self-organisation in protoplanetary disks: global, non-stratified Hall-MHD simulations
• Low mass planet migration in magnetically torqued dead zones - II. Flow-locked and runaway migration, and a torque prescription
• Pebble drift and planetesimal formation in protoplanetary discs with embedded planets
• Catching drifting pebbles II. A stochastic equation of motions for pebbles
• In situ formation of hot Jupiters with companion super-Earths
• Peter Pan Discs: finding Neverland's parameters
• Exploring plausible formation scenarios for the planet candidate orbiting Proxima Centauri

Cited by in corpus (12)

• The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). II. Planetary population of solar-like stars and overview of statistical results
• Efficient planet formation by pebble accretion in ALMA rings
• Radial-velocity discovery of a second planet in the TOI-1338/BEBOP-1 circumbinary system
• Planet formation via pebble accretion in externally photoevaporating discs
• The growth and migration of massive planets under the influence of external photoevaporation
• How to make giant planets via pebble accretion
• Sequential giant planet formation initiated by disc substructure
• Resilience of Planetesimal Formation in Weakly-Reinforced Pressure Bumps
• Global N-body simulations of circumbinary planet formation around Kepler-16 and -34 analogues I: Exploring the pebble accretion scenario
• Growth after the streaming instability: The radial distance dependence of the planetary growth
• Can the giant planets of the Solar System form via pebble accretion in a smooth protoplanetary disc?
• Dispersal of protoplanetary discs: How stellar properties and the local environment determine the pathway of evolution