Super-Earths and Earth-like Exoplanets

Abstract

In the last few years astronomical surveys have expanded the reach of planetary science into the realm of small and dense extrasolar worlds. These share a number of characteristics with the terrestrial and icy planetary objects of the Solar System, but keep stretching previous understanding of the known limits of planetary thermodynamics, material properties, and climate regimes. Improved compositional and thermal constraints on exoplanets below $\sim$2 Earth radii suggest efficient accretion of atmosphere-forming volatile elements in a fraction of planetary systems, pointing to rapid formation, planet-scale melting, and chemical equilibration between the core, mantle, and atmosphere of rocky and volatile-rich exoplanets. Meaningful interpretation of novel observational data from these worlds necessitates cross-disciplinary expansion of known material properties under extreme thermodynamic, non-solar conditions, and accounting for dynamic feedbacks between interior and atmospheric processes. Exploration of the atmosphere and surface composition of individual, short-period super-Earths in the next few years will enable key inferences on magma ocean dynamics, the redox state of rocky planetary mantles, and mixing between volatile and refractory phases in planetary regimes that are absent from the present-day Solar System, and reminiscent of the conditions of the prebiotic Earth. The atmospheric characterization of climate diversity and the statistical search for biosignatures on terrestrial exoplanets on temperate orbits will require space-based direct imaging surveys, capable of resolving emission features of major and trace gases in both shortwave and mid-infrared wavelengths.

arXiv comment39 pages, 11 figures; review chapter accepted for publication in Treatise on Geochemistry, 3rd edition

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• Observability of Evaporating Lava Worlds
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• Isotopic enrichment of forming planetary systems from supernova pollution
• The New Generation Planetary Population Synthesis (NGPPS). V. Predetermination of planet types in global core accretion models
• No hydrogen exosphere detected around the super-Earth HD97658 b
• The path towards high-contrast imaging with the VLTI: the Hi-5 project
• Atmospheric Seasonality as an Exoplanet Biosignature
• Convective outgassing efficiency in planetary magma oceans: insights from computational fluid dynamics
• Supernova enrichment and dynamical histories of solar-type stars in clusters
• Solubility of water in peridotite liquids and the prevalence of steam atmospheres on rocky planets
• No escaping helium from 55 Cnc e
• A Heavy Molecular Weight Atmosphere for the Super-Earth π Men c
• The Nominal Range of Rocky Planet Masses, Radii, Surface Gravities and Bulk Densities
• A Methane Extension to the Classical Habitable Zone
• Transient conditions for biogenesis on low-mass exoplanets with escaping hydrogen atmospheres
• Redox hysteresis of super-Earth exoplanets from magma ocean circulation
• Carbonate-Silicate Cycle Predictions of Earth-like Planetary Climates and Testing the Habitable Zone Concept
• Thermodynamic and Energetic Limits on Continental Silicate Weathering Strongly Impact the Climate and Habitability of Wet, Rocky Worlds
• Two temperate Earth-mass planets orbiting the nearby star GJ1002
• The Albedos of Kepler's Close-in super-Earths
• The Atmospheres of Rocky Exoplanets I. Outgassing of Common Rock and the Stability of Liquid Water
• The runaway greenhouse on subNeptune waterworlds
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• The effect of temperature evolution on the interior structure of H${}_2$O-rich planets
• Modeling the albedo of Earth-like magma ocean planets with H2O-CO2 atmospheres
• Contribution of the core to the thermal evolution of sub-Neptunes
• Bioverse: A Comprehensive Assessment of the Capabilities of Extremely Large Telescopes to Probe Earth-like O${}_2$ Levels in Nearby Transiting Habitable Zone Exoplanets
• Magma ocean evolution of the TRAPPIST-1 planets
• Accretion of the earliest inner solar system planetesimals beyond the water-snowline
• HST/WFC3 transmission spectroscopy of the cold rocky planet TRAPPIST-1h
• Nucleation and growth of iron pebbles explains the formation of iron-rich planets akin to Mercury
• Magma ascent in planetesimals: control by grain size
• 3D modelling of the impact of stellar activity on tidally locked terrestrial exoplanets: atmospheric composition and habitability
• Tidal Heating and the Habitability of the TRAPPIST-1 Exoplanets
• The Diversity of Planetary Systems Architectures: Contrasting Theory with Observations
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• Distinguishing between wet and dry atmospheres of TRAPPIST-1 e and f
• Ground-Based Transit Observations of the Super-Earth 55 Cnc e
• A cool runaway greenhouse without surface magma ocean
• The high-energy environment and atmospheric escape of the mini-Neptune K2-18 b
• Coupled Thermal and Compositional Evolution of Photo Evaporating Planet Envelopes
• An unusually low-density super-Earth transiting the bright early-type M-dwarf GJ 1018 (TOI-244)
• A Thousand Earths: A Very Large Aperture, Ultralight Space Telescope Array for Atmospheric Biosignature Surveys
• Late Accretion and the Late Veneer
• Oxygen False Positives on Habitable Zone Planets Around Sun-Like Stars
• Investigating the architecture and internal structure of the TOI-561 system planets with CHEOPS, HARPS-N and TESS
• On the Emergent Spectra of Hot Protoplanet Collision Afterglows
• The Vegetation Red Edge Biosignature Through Time on Earth and Exoplanets
• Steady State by Recycling prevents Premature Collapse of Protoplanetary Atmospheres
• Cloud formation in metal-rich atmospheres of hot super-Earths like 55 Cnc e and CoRot7b
• Modelling the atmosphere of lava planet K2-141b: implications for low and high resolution spectroscopy
• Carbon cycling and interior evolution of water-covered plate tectonics and stagnant lid planets
• Mantle Convection, Plate Tectonics, and Volcanism on Hot Exo-Earths
• TOI-561 b: A Low Density Ultra-Short Period "Rocky" Planet around a Metal-Poor Star
• Observing Isotopologue Bands in Terrestrial Exoplanet Atmospheres with the James Webb Space Telescope---Implications for Identifying Past Atmospheric and Ocean Loss
• The rotation of planets hosting atmospheric tides: from Venus to habitable super-earths
• When is chemical disequilibrium in Earth-like planetary atmospheres a biosignature versus an anti-biosignature? Disequilibria from dead to living worlds
• Magnetodynamo Lifetimes for Rocky, Earth-Mass Exoplanets with Contrasting Mantle Convection Regimes
• Hot Hydrogen Climates near the inner edge of the Habitable Zone
• Reduced atmospheres of post-impact worlds: The early Earth
• Atmospheric Erosion by Giant Impacts onto Terrestrial Planets: A Scaling Law for any Speed, Angle, Mass, and Density
• The distribution of volatile elements during rocky planet formation
• Low Albedo Surfaces of Lava Worlds
• The impact of stripped cores on the frequency of Earth-size planets in the habitable zone
• Atmosphere loss in planet-planet collisions
• Optical Transmission Spectroscopy of the Terrestrial Exoplanet LHS 3844b from 13 Ground-Based Transit Observations
• Strong HI Lyman-$\alpha$ variations from the 11 Gyr-old host star Kepler-444: a planetary origin ?
• The habitability of stagnant-lid Earths around dwarf stars
• Numerical solution of a non-linear conservation law applicable to the interior dynamics of partially molten planets
• Understanding planetary context to enable life detection on exoplanets and test the Copernican principle
• Equation of state of SiC at extreme conditions: new insight into the interior of carbon rich exoplanets
• The K2-3 system revisited: testing photoevaporation and core-powered mass loss with three small planets spanning the radius valley
• A roadmap for the atmospheric characterization of terrestrial exoplanets with JWST
• Is ozone a reliable proxy for molecular oxygen? I. The O2-O3 relationship for Earth-like atmospheres
• Direct imaging of molten protoplanets in nearby young stellar associations
• Testing the Detectability of Extraterrestrial ${\mathrm{O}}_2$ with the ELTs using Real Data with Real Noise
• Assessment of Isoprene as a Possible Biosignature Gas in Exoplanets with Anoxic Atmospheres
• Composition of Terrestrial Exoplanet Atmospheres from Meteorite Outgassing Experiments
• Sulfate Aerosol Hazes and SO2 Gas as Constraints on Rocky Exoplanets' Surface Liquid Water
• Connecting the dots III: Night side cooling and surface friction affect climates of tidally locked terrestrial planets
• Mineralogy, structure and habitability of carbon-enriched rocky exoplanets: A laboratory approach
• Atmospheric compositions and observability of nitrogen dominated ultra-short period super-Earths
• Reflected spectroscopy of small exoplanets II: characterization of terrestrial exoplanets
• Near-infrared transmission spectrum of TRAPPIST-1 h using Hubble WFC3 G141 observations
• Revisiting the Iconic Spitzer Phase Curve of 55 Cancri e: Hotter Dayside, Cooler Nightside and Smaller Phase Offset
• Space-based infrared interferometry to study exoplanetary atmospheres
• Reconstructing the size distribution of the primordial Main Belt
• Implications of atmospheric nondetections for Trappist-1 inner planets on atmospheric retention prospects for outer planets
• Formation of aqua planets with water of nebular origin: Effects of water enrichment on the structure and mass of captured atmospheres of terrestrial planets
• A Solar System formation analogue in the Ophiuchus star-forming complex
• VapoRock: Thermodynamics of vaporized silicate melts for modeling volcanic outgassing and magma ocean atmospheres
• Cosmic nucleosynthesis: a multi-messenger challenge
• Beyond runaway: initiation of the post-runaway greenhouse state on rocky exoplanets
• A Volatile-Poor Formation of LHS 3844b based on its Lack of Significant Atmosphere
• Low volcanic outgassing rates for a stagnant lid Archean Earth with graphite-saturated magmas
• Simultaneous Optical Transmission Spectroscopy of a Terrestrial, Habitable-Zone Exoplanet with Two Ground-Based Multi-Object Spectrographs
• Internal or external magma oceans in the earliest protoplanets -- perspectives from nitrogen and carbon fractionation
• A mirage of the cosmic shoreline: Venus-like clouds as a statistical false positive for exoplanet atmospheric erosion
• Recycling of the first atmospheres of embedded planets: Dependence on core mass and optical depth
• Inefficient water degassing inhibits ocean formation on rocky planets: An insight from self-consistent mantle degassing models
• System-level fractionation of carbon from disk and planetesimal processing
• Anatomy of rocky planets formed by rapid pebble accretion II. Differentiation by accretion energy and thermal blanketing
• The impact of time-dependent stellar activity on exoplanet atmospheres
• Ground-based Optical Transmission Spectroscopy of the Nearby Terrestrial Exoplanet LTT 1445Ab
• Keeping M-Earths Habitable in the Face of Atmospheric Loss by Sequestering Water in the Mantle
• MAGRATHEA: an open-source spherical symmetric planet interior structure code
• High-Resolution Transmission Spectroscopy of the Terrestrial Exoplanet GJ 486b
• Helium Enhanced Planets Along the Upper Edge of the Radius Valley
• Ultra Short Period Planets in K2 with companions: a double transiting system for EPIC 220674823
• TOI-1695 b: A Water World Orbiting an Early M Dwarf in the Planet Radius Valley
• The role of planetary interior in the long-term evolution of atmospheric CO2 on Earth-like exoplanets
• A multi-wavelength look at the GJ 9827 system -- No evidence of extended atmospheres in GJ 9827 b and d from HST and CARMENES data
• Lyman-alpha in the GJ 1132 System: Stellar Emission and Planetary Atmospheric Evolution
• Hemispheric Tectonics on super-Earth LHS 3844b
• Forming super-Mercuries: The role of stellar abundances
• Interior dynamics of super-Earth 55 Cancri e
• Rotational Spectral Unmixing of Exoplanets: Degeneracies between Surface Colors and Geography
• The energy budget and figure of Earth during recovery from the Moon-forming giant impact
• Possible Atmospheric Diversity of Low Mass Exoplanets, some Central Aspects
• The HD 137496 system: A dense, hot super-Mercury and a cold Jupiter
• Connecting photometric and spectroscopic granulation signals with CHEOPS and ESPRESSO
• Migration and Growth of Protoplanetary Embryos II: Emergence of Proto-Gas-Giants Cores versus Super Earths' Progenitor
• The effect of a small amount of hydrogen in the atmosphere of ultrahot magma-ocean planets: atmospheric composition and escape
• A transmission spectrum of the sub-Earth planet L98-59~b in 1.1-1.7 $\mu$m
• Evolution and Spectral Response of a Steam Atmosphere for Early Earth with a coupled climate-interior model
• Bioverse: The Habitable Zone Inner Edge Discontinuity as an Imprint of Runaway Greenhouse Climates on Exoplanet Demographics
• Reduced late bombardment on rocky exoplanets around M-dwarfs
• Lithologic Controls on Silicate Weathering Regimes of Temperate Planets
• Where are the Water Worlds?: Self-Consistent Models of Water-Rich Exoplanet Atmospheres
• Investigating the visible phase-curve variability of 55 Cnc e
• Hubble WFC3 Spectroscopy of the Terrestrial Planets L~98-59~c \& d: No Evidence for a Clear Hydrogen Dominated Primary Atmosphere
• A mineralogical reason why all exoplanets cannot be equally oxidising
• Ions in the Thermosphere of Exoplanets: Observable Constraints Revealed by Innovative Laboratory Experiments
• Behind the Mask: can HARMONI@ELT detect biosignatures in the reflected light of Proxima b?
• 55 Cancri e's occultation captured with CHEOPS
• Hubble WFC3 Spectroscopy of the Rocky Planet L 98-59 b: No Evidence for a Cloud-Free Primordial Atmosphere
• Detection of Paschen $\beta$ absorption in the atmosphere of KELT-9 b: A new window into the atmospheres of ultra-hot Jupiters
• Habitable planet formation around low-mass stars: Rapid accretion, rapid debris removal and the essential contribution of external giants
• Temperature Structures Associated with Different Components of the Atmospheric Circulation on Tidally Locked Exoplanets
• Kepler's Dark Worlds: a Low Albedo for an Ensemble of Neptunian and Terran Exoplanets
• A Concise Treatise on Converting Stellar Mass Fractions to Abundances to Molar Ratios
• Diversity of planetary systems in low-mass disks: Terrestrial-type planet formation and water delivery
• How does the background atmosphere affect the onset of the runaway greenhouse ?
• The three regimes of atmospheric evaporation for super-Earths and sub-Neptunes
• Dust formation in the outflows of catastrophically evaporating planets
• Thermal Evolution and magnetic history of rocky planets
• Continuous reorientation of synchronous terrestrial planets controlled by mantle convection
• Rapid Formation of Exoplanetesimals Revealed by White Dwarfs
• LavAtmos: An open source chemical equilibrium vaporisation code for lava worlds
• TOI-1075 b: A Dense, Massive, Ultra-Short Period Hot Super-Earth Straddling the Radius Gap
• Prevalence of short-lived radioactive isotopes across exoplanetary systems inferred from polluted white dwarfs
• Atmospheric Dynamics of a Near Tidally Locked Earth-Size Planet
• Atmospheric carbon depletion as a tracer of water oceans and biomass on temperate terrestrial exoplanets
• The effect of high nitrogen pressures on the habitable zone and an appraisal of greenhouse states
• Observational constraints on the likelihood of ${}^{26}$Al in planet-forming environments
• Atmospheric circulation, chemistry, and infrared spectra of Titan-like exoplanets around different stellar types
• Redox state and interior structure control on the long-term habitability of stagnant-lid planets
• The Atmospheres of Rocky Exoplanets II. Influence of surface composition on the diversity of cloud condensates
• Lava World: Exoplanet Surfaces
• Limits on Protoplanet Growth by Accretion of Small Solids
• Inferring Chemical Disequilibrium Biosignatures for Proterozoic Earth-Like Exoplanets
• Temperature inversions on hot super-Earths: the case of CN in nitrogen-rich atmospheres
• Giant impacts stochastically change the internal pressures of terrestrial planets
• Atmospheric stability and collapse on tidally locked rocky planets
• Biases in retrieving planetary signals in the presence of quasi-periodic stellar activity
• Limitation of atmospheric composition by combustion-explosion in exoplanetary atmospheres
• A Reanalysis of the Composition of K2-106b: an Ultra-short Period Super-Mercury Candidate
• Signatures of impact-driven atmospheric loss in large ensembles of exoplanets
• Atmospheric dynamics on terrestrial planets with eccentric orbits
• Narrow loophole for H2-dominated atmospheres on habitable rocky planets around M dwarfs
• Detectable Abundance of Cyanoacetylene (HC${}_3$N) Predicted on Reduced Nitrogen-Rich Super-Earth Atmospheres
• The growth of super-Earths: the importance of a self-consistent treatment of disc structures and pebble accretion
• The evolution of catastrophically evaporating rocky planets
• Blue marble, stagnant lid: Could dynamic topography avert a waterworld?
• The energetic particle environment of a GJ 436 b-like planet
• Rocky sub-Neptunes formed by pebble accretion: Rain of rocks from polluted envelopes
• Exploring Super-Earth Surfaces: Albedo of Near-Airless Magma Ocean Planets and Topography
• Constraining Background N2 Inventories on Directly Imaged Terrestrial Exoplanets to Rule Out O2 False Positives
• The Terrestrial Planet Formation around M Dwarfs: In-situ, Inward Migration or Reversed Migration
• From Super-Earths to Mini-Neptunes: Implications of a Surface on Atmospheric Circulation
• CHEOPS and TESS view of the ultra-short period super-Earth TOI-561 b
• The influence of surface $C{O}_2$ condensation on the evolution of warm and cold rocky planets orbiting Sun-like stars
• Salty ice and the dilemma of ocean exoplanet habitability
• Rapid-then-slow migration reproduces mass distribution of TRAPPIST-1 system
• Thermal evolution of rocky exoplanets with a graphite outer shell
• Planet formation and disk mass dependence in a pebble-driven scenario for low mass stars
• Short-lived radioisotope enrichment in star-forming regions from stellar winds and supernovae
• Imaging of exocomets with infrared interferometry
• How Flow Isolation May Set the Mass Scale for Super-Earth Planets
• A New Desalination Pump Help Define the pH of Ocean Worlds
• Diverse Carbonates in Exoplanet Oceans Promote the Carbon Cycle
• Observations of planetary winds and outflows
• Meta-modelling the climate of dry tide locked rocky planets
• Detecting Atmospheric Molecules of Temperate Terrestrial Exoplanets using High-Resolution Spectroscopy in the Mid Infrared Domain
• The role of interior dynamics and differentiation on the surface and atmosphere of lava planets

Cited by in corpus (18)

• Escaping Helium and a Highly Muted Spectrum Suggest a Metal-Enriched Atmosphere on Sub-Neptune GJ3090b from JWST Transit Spectroscopy
• Magma ocean evolution at arbitrary redox state
• JWST COMPASS: NIRSpec/G395H Transmission Observations of the Super-Earth TOI-776b
• Convective shutdown in the atmospheres of lava worlds
• Magma ocean interactions can explain JWST observations of the sub-Neptune TOI-270 d
• Prospects for Detecting Signs of Life on Exoplanets in the JWST Era
• Constraining exoplanet interiors using observations of their atmospheres
• Self-limited tidal heating and prolonged magma oceans in the L 98-59 system
• Characterisation of TOI-406 as showcase of the THIRSTEE program: A 2-planet system straddling the M-dwarf density gap
• The JWST Rocky Worlds DDT Program reveals GJ 3929b to likely be a bare rock
• Two neighbours of the ultra-short-period Earth-sized planet K2-157 b in the warm Neptunian savanna
• Absence of a Runaway Greenhouse Limit on Lava Planets
• AGNI: A radiative-convective model for lava planet atmospheres
• Probing the Limits of Habitability: A Catalog of Rocky Exoplanets in the Habitable Zone
• The dark and featureless surface of rocky exoplanet LHS 3844 b from JWST mid-infrared spectroscopy
• Not Earth-like Yet Temperate? More Generic Climate Feedback Configurations Still Allow Temperate Climates in Habitable Zone Exo-Earth Candidates
• Impact of rotation on synthetic mass-radius relationships of two-layer rocky planets and water worlds
• What the Solar System Can Teach Us About Rocky Exoplanets