The Gemini Planet Imager Exoplanet Survey: Giant Planet and Brown Dwarf Demographics From 10-100 AU

Abstract

We present a statistical analysis of the first 300 stars observed by the Gemini Planet Imager Exoplanet Survey (GPIES). This subsample includes six detected planets and three brown dwarfs; from these detections and our contrast curves we infer the underlying distributions of substellar companions with respect to their mass, semi-major axis, and host stellar mass. We uncover a strong correlation between planet occurrence rate and host star mass, with stars M $>$ 1.5 $M_{\odot }$ more likely to host planets with masses between 2-13 M${}_{\mathrm{Jup}}$ and semi-major axes of 3-100 au at 99.92% confidence. We fit a double power-law model in planet mass (m) and semi-major axis (a) for planet populations around high-mass stars (M $>$ 1.5M${}_{\odot }$) of the form $\frac{d^{2}N}{dmda}\propto m^{\alpha }{a}^{\beta }$, finding $\alpha$ = -2.4 $\pm$ 0.8 and $\beta$ = -2.0 $\pm$ 0.5, and an integrated occurrence rate of $9_{-4}^{+5}$% between 5-13 M${}_{\mathrm{Jup}}$ and 10-100 au. A significantly lower occurrence rate is obtained for brown dwarfs around all stars, with 0.8${}_{-0.5}^{+0.8}$% of stars hosting a brown dwarf companion between 13-80 M${}_{\mathrm{Jup}}$ and 10-100 au. Brown dwarfs also appear to be distributed differently in mass and semi-major axis compared to giant planets; whereas giant planets follow a bottom-heavy mass distribution and favor smaller semi-major axes, brown dwarfs exhibit just the opposite behaviors. Comparing to studies of short-period giant planets from the RV method, our results are consistent with a peak in occurrence of giant planets between ~1-10 au. We discuss how these trends, including the preference of giant planets for high-mass host stars, point to formation of giant planets by core/pebble accretion, and formation of brown dwarfs by gravitational instability.

arXiv comment52 pages, 18 figures. AJ in press

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• A Theoretical Framework for the Mass Distribution of Gas Giant Planets forming through the Core Accretion Paradigm
• MADYS: the Manifold Age Determination for Young Stars
• Moderate-Resolution $K$-Band Spectroscopy of the Substellar Companion VHS 1256 b
• The ALMA survey to Resolve exoKuiper belt Substructures (ARKS) I: Motivation, sample, data reduction, and results overview
• Rave: A non-parametric method for recovering the surface brightness and height profiles of edge-on debris disks
• Direct-imaging Discovery of a Substellar Companion Orbiting the Accelerating Variable Star, HIP 39017
• Revisiting collisional dust growth in Class 0/I protostellar disks: Sweep-up can convert a few $10M_{\oplus }$ of dust into kg pebbles in 0.1 Myr
• The wind-driven halo in high-contrast images I: analysis from the focal plane images of SPHERE
• Evidence for Variable Accretion onto PDS 70 c and Implications for Protoplanet Detections
• Fresh view of the hot brown dwarf HD 984 B through high-resolution spectroscopy
• Dynamical Mass of the Young Brown Dwarf Companion PZ Tel B
• Direct imaging of exoplanets: Legacy and prospects
• Calibration of quasi-static aberrations in exoplanet direct-imaging instruments with a Zernike phase-mask sensor. IV. Temporal stability of non-common path aberrations in VLT/SPHERE
• ARMADA II: Further Detections of Inner Companions to Intermediate Mass Binaries with Micro-Arcsecond Astrometry at CHARA and VLTI
• Prospects for Directly Imaging Young Giant Planets at Optical Wavelengths
• Hot Jupiter formation in dense clusters: secular chaos in multi-planetary systems
• Combining Gaia and GRAVITY: Characterising five new Directly Detected Substellar Companions
• A HARPS radial velocity search for planets in the Scorpius-Centaurus association. And its combination with the HARPS and SOPHIE young nearby stars (YNS) surveys
• ARMADA I: Triple Companions Detected in B-Type Binaries alpha Del and nu Gem
• Inner edges of planetesimal belts: collisionally eroded or truncated?
• The origin of R CrA variability: A complex triple system hosting a disk
• Discovery of an Edge-on Circumstellar Debris Disk Around BD+45${}^{\circ }$598: a Newly Identifed Member of the $\beta$ Pictoris Moving Group
• Atmospheric characterization of the super-Jupiter HIP 99770 b with KPIC
• In-depth direct imaging and spectroscopic characterization of the young Solar System analog HD 95086
• The Demographics of Exoplanets
• First Images of the Protoplanetary Disk Around PDS 201
• AB Aurigae: Possible evidence of planet formation through the gravitational instability
• DBNets: A publicly available deep learning tool to measure the masses of young planets in dusty protoplanetary discs
• First detections of H13CO+ and HC15N in the disk around HD 97048: Evidence for a cold gas reservoir in the outer disk
• Inward and outward migration of massive planets: moving towards a stalling radius
• Non-thermal radio continuum emission from young nearby stars
• Free-floating or wide-orbit? Keck adaptive-optics observations of free-floating planet candidates detected with gravitational microlensing
• Calibration of residual aberrations in exoplanet imagers with large numbers of degrees of freedom
• Exoplanet Imaging Data Challenge: benchmarking the various image processing methods for exoplanet detection
• The Demographics of Wide-Separation Planets
• The OATMEAL Survey. I. Low Stellar Obliquity in the Transiting Brown Dwarf System GPX-1
• Trade-offs in high-contrast integral field spectroscopy for exoplanet detection and characterisation: Young gas giants in emission
• Detecting Exoplanets Closer to Stars with Moderate Spectral Resolution Integral-Field Spectroscopy
• Vortex Fiber Nulling for Exoplanet Observations: Implementation and First Light
• The COBREX archival survey: improved constraints on the occurrence rate of wide-orbit substellar companions. I. A uniform re-analysis of 400 stars from the GPIES survey
• Direct Imaging Discovery of a Young Brown Dwarf Companion to an A2V Star
• VIBES: VIsual Binary Exoplanet survey with SPHERE Upper limits on wide S-planet and S-BD frequencies, triple system discovery, and astrometric confirmation of 20 stellar binaries and three triple systems
• Search for giant planets around seven white dwarfs in the Hyades cluster with the Hubble Space Telescope
• The Scorpion Planet Survey: Wide-Orbit Giant Planets Around Young A-type Stars
• Impacts of high-contrast image processing on atmospheric retrievals
• Orbital Migration of Protoplanets in a Marginally Gravitationally Unstable Disk. II. Migration, Merging, and Ejection
• ACCESS: An optical transmission spectrum of the high-gravity, hot Jupiter HAT-P-23b
• The SHARDDS survey: limits on planet occurrence rates based on point sources analysis via the Auto-RSM framework
• SCExAO and Keck Direct Imaging Discovery of a Low-Mass Companion Around the Accelerating F5 Star HIP 5319
• Vortex fiber nulling for exoplanet observations: conceptual design, theoretical performance, and initial scientific yield predictions
• Constraining masses and separations of unseen companions to five accelerating nearby stars
• Improving Planet Detection with Disk Modeling: Keck/NIRC2 Imaging of the HD 34282 Single-armed Protoplanetary Disk
• The Possible Astrometric Signature of a Planetary-mass Companion to the Nearby Young Star TW Piscis Austrini (Fomalhaut B): Constraints from Astrometry, Radial Velocities, and Direct Imaging
• Planets around evolved intermediate-mass stars III. Planet candidates and long-term activity signals in six open clusters
• A close-in puffy Neptune with hidden friends: The enigma of TOI 620
• Multilayer Perceptron and Geometric Albedo Spectra for Quick Parameter Estimations of Exoplanets
• Spectral and angular differential imaging with SPHERE/IFS. Assessing the performance of various PCA-based approaches to PSF subtraction
• KELT-17: a chemically peculiar Am star and a hot-Jupiter planet
• Use the 4S (Signal-Safe Speckle Subtraction): Explainable Machine Learning reveals the Giant Exoplanet AF Lep b in High-Contrast Imaging Data from 2011
• The California Legacy Survey II. Occurrence of Giant Planets Beyond the Ice line
• The spectrally modulated self-coherent camera (SM-SCC): Increasing throughput for focal-plane wavefront sensing
• HD 56414 b: A Warm Neptune Transiting an A-type Star
• Zodiacal Exoplanets in Time (ZEIT) XII: A Directly-Imaged Planetary-Mass Companion to a Young Taurus M Dwarf Star
• A High-Resolution Spectroscopic Survey of Directly Imaged Companion Hosts: I. Determination of diagnostic stellar abundances for planet formation and composition
• Karhunen-Loève Data Imputation in High Contrast Imaging
• Limits on the presence of planets in systems with debris disks: HD 92945 and HD 107146
• The Likelihood of Detecting Young Giant Planets with High Contrast Imaging and Interferometry
• A low-mass companion desert among intermediate-mass visual binaries: The scaled-up counterpart to the brown dwarf desert
• Making hot Jupiters in stellar clusters: the importance of binary exchange
• DIPSY: A new Disc Instability Population SYnthesis, II. The Populations of Companions Formed Through Disc Instability
• Giant planets population around B stars from the first part of the BEAST survey
• The Visible Integral-field Spectrograph eXtreme (VIS-X): high-resolution spectroscopy with MagAO-X
• Direct Spectroscopy of 51 Eridani b with JWST NIRSpec
• An unusually large gaseous transit in a debris disc
• A Population Analysis of 20 Exoplanets Observed from the Optical to the Near-infrared Wavelengths with HST: Evidence for Widespread Stellar Contamination
• Intermediate mass T Tauri disk masses and a comparison to their Herbig disk descendants
• DBNets2.0: simulation-based inference for planet-induced dust substructures in protoplanetary discs
• HD 28185 Revisited: An Outer Planet, Instead of a Brown Dwarf, On a Saturn-like Orbit
• BEAST detection of a brown dwarf and a low-mass stellar companion around the young bright B star HIP 81208
• A Chromaticity Analysis and PSF Subtraction Techniques for SCExAO/CHARIS data
• The Effect of the Approach to Gas Disk Gravitational Instability on the Rapid Formation of Gas Giant Planets. II. Quadrupled Spatial Resolution
• Atmospheric Characterization and Further Orbital Modeling of $\kappa$ And b
• A study of the frequency and characteristics of stellar companions and Jupiter-like planets in nearby open clusters
• Searching for wide-orbit gravitational instability protoplanets with ALMA in the dust continuum
• Observability of Photoevaporation Signatures in the Dust Continuum Emission of Transition Discs
• Constraints on Planets in Nearby Young Moving Groups Detectable by High-Contrast Imaging and Gaia Astrometry
• Improved companion mass limits for Sirius A with thermal infrared coronagraphy using a vector-apodizing phase plate and time-domain starlight-subtraction techniques
• From exo-Earths to exo-Venuses -- Flux and Polarization Signatures of Reflected Light
• Detection of a low-mass stellar companion to the accelerating A2IV star HR 1645
• A Wide Orbit Exoplanet OGLE-2012-BLG-0838Lb
• Low-order wavefront control using a Zernike sensor through Lyot coronagraphs for exoplanet imaging: II. Concurrent operation with stroke minimization
• The ExoGRAVITY survey: A K-band spectral library of giant exoplanet and brown dwarf companions
• Effects of Mirror Seeing on High-Contrast Adaptive Optics Instruments
• Applying a temporal systematics model to vector Apodizing Phase Plate coronagraphic data: TRAP4vAPP
• Detecting planetary mass companions near the water frost-line using JWST interferometry
• The Fast Atmospheric Self-Coherent Camera Technique: Laboratory Results and Future Directions
• MOA-2019-BLG-008Lb: a new microlensing detection of an object at the planet/brown dwarf boundary
• SPHERE RefPlanets: Search for epsilon Eridani b and warm dust
• First light of a holographic aperture mask: Observation at the Keck OSIRIS Imager
• WIde Separation Planets In Time (WISPIT): Two directly imaged exoplanets around the Sun-like stellar binary WISPIT 1
• A young spectroscopic binary in a quintuple system part of the Local Association
• High contrast imaging with Fizeau interferometry: The case of Altair
• Searching for Planets Orbiting Vega with the James Webb Space Telescope
• A complete Herbig disk mass survey in Orion
• Forming short period sub-stellar companions in 47 Tucanae -- II. Analytic expressions for the orbital evolution of planets in dense environments
• Small and Close-In Planets are Uncommon Around A-type Stars
• On the survivability of a population of gas giant planets on wide orbits
• Planet-forming disks and their environment across regions and time from the full NIR census
• An optimised survey strategy for the ERIS/NIX imager: searching for young giant exoplanets and very low mass brown dwarfs using the K-peak custom photometric filter
• Companion Mass Limits for 17 Binary Systems Obtained with Binary Differential Imaging and MagAO/Clio
• GTC/CanariCam deep mid-infrared imaging survey of northern stars within 5 pc
• Non-thermal motions and atmospheric heating of cool stars
• High-contrast detection of exoplanets with a kernel-nuller at the VLTI
• A multi-technique detection of an eccentric giant planet around accelerating star HD 57625
• Abundance analysis of stars hosting gas-rich debris disks
• The planetary-mass-limit VLT/SINFONI library: Spectral extraction and atmospheric characterization via forward modeling
• DIPSY: A new Disc Instability Population SYnthesis, I. Modeling, evolution of individual systems, and tests
• GPI+SPHERE detection of a 6.1 $M_{\text{Jup}}$ circumbinary planet around HD 143811
• SCExAO/CHARIS and Gaia Direct Imaging and Astrometric Discovery of a Superjovian Planet 3--4 lambda/D from the Accelerating Star HIP 54515
• Asteroids and life: How special is the solar system?
• HD 143811 AB b: A Directly Imaged Planet Orbiting a Spectroscopic Binary in Sco-Cen
• Searching for Protoplanets around MWC 758 and MWC 480 in Br-$\gamma$ using Kernel Phase and SCExAO/CHARIS
• New migration patterns in high planet-star mass ratio systems in disks with low viscosity
• Planet Search with the Keck/NIRC2 Vortex Coronagraph in Ms-band for Vega
• MOA-2020-BLG-208Lb: Cool Sub-Saturn Planet Within Predicted Desert
• A candidate giant planet companion to the massive, young white dwarf GALEX J071816.4+373139 informs the occurrence of giant planets orbiting B stars
• A High-Resolution Spectroscopic Survey of Directly Imaged Companion Hosts: II. Diversity in C/O Ratios among Host Stars
• New Mid-Infrared Imaging Constraints on Companions and Protoplanetary Disks around six Young Stars
• Lost Sisters Found: TESS and Gaia Reveal a Dissolving Pleiades Complex
• Characterizing Exoplanets for Assessing Their Potential Habitability
• Three new late-type stellar companions to very dusty WISE debris disks identified with VLT/SPHERE imaging
• Companions to Kepler giant stars: A long-period eccentric substellar companion to KIC 3526061 and a stellar companion to HD 187878
• K-Stacker, an algorithm to hack the orbital parameters of planets hidden in high-contrast imaging. First applications to VLT SPHERE multi-epoch observations
• Occurrence rates of accreting companions from a new method for computing emission-line survey sensitivity: application to the H-alpha Giant Accreting Protoplanet Survey
• OASIS Survey Direct Imaging and Astrometric Discovery of HIP 71618 B: A Substellar Companion Suitable for the Roman Coronagraph Technology Demonstration
• HD 165054: an astrometric calibration field for high-contrast imagers in Baade's Window
• The Mass Budgets and Spatial Scales of Exoplanet Systems and Protoplanetary Disks
• Recovering simulated planet and disk signals using SCALES aperture masking
• Hot Jupiter formation in dense stellar clusters: A Monte Carlo model applied to 47 Tucanae
• Apache Point Observatory follow-up of ACcelerating Candidate ExopLanet host Stars (APO ACCELS): Ages for 166 Accelerating Stars in the Northern Hemisphere
• Semianalytical Accretion-Tracer Emission: Forming Planets Are Intrinsically Faint
• Ground to Dust: Collisional Cascades and the Fate of Kardashev II Megaswarms
• The SPHERE view of multiple star formation
• The California Legacy Survey I. A Catalog of 178 Planets from Precision Radial Velocity Monitoring of 719 Nearby Stars over Three Decades
• Estimating effective wind speed from Gemini Planet Imager's adaptive optics data using covariance maps
• Direct Imaging Discovery of Giant Exoplanet $\beta$ Pictoris d: A Decade-Long Game of Hide-and-Seek
• ESCAPE project. CAPyBARA: a Roman Coronagraph simulator for post-processing methods development
• Asteroseismology of iota Draconis and Discovery of an Additional Long-Period Companion
• MOA-2020-BLG-135Lb: A New Neptune-class Planet for the Extended MOA-II Exoplanet Microlens Statistical Analysis
• First Experimental Results of the Fast Atmospheric Self-coherent Camera Technique on the Santa cruz Extreme Adaptive optics Laboratory Testbed: Demonstration of High Speed Focal Plane Wavefront Control of Residual Atmospheric Speckles
• GPI 2.0: Exploring The Impact of Different Readout Modes on the Wavefront Sensor's EMCCD
• Analyzing the Atmospheric Dispersion Correction of the Gemini Planet Imager: residual dispersion above design requirements
• A New Type of Exoplanet Direct Imaging Search: The SCExAO/CHARIS Survey of Accelerating Stars
• On-sky performance and recent results from the Subaru coronagraphic extreme adaptive optics system
• HIP 67506 C: MagAO-X Confirmation of a New Low-Mass Stellar Companion to HIP 67506 A
• Keck Observations in the INfrared of Taurus and $\rho$ Oph Exoplanets And Ultracool dwarfs (KOINTREAU) II: Two Young Bound Companions to Ophiuchus Stars
• A universal brown dwarf desert formed between planets and stars
• Performance and Early Science with the Subaru Coronagraphic Extreme Adaptive Optics Project
• Direct Imaging of Irregular Satellite Disks in Scattered Light
• The GAPS Programme at TNG LXVIII. Characterization of the outer substellar companion around HD 72659 with a multi-technique approach
• Ground-Based Mid-IR Direct Imaging: The Origin of the Thermal Background on the Keck II Telescope and Correcting Instrumental Systematics
• Original use of MUSE's laser tomography adaptive optics to directly image young accreting exoplanets
• Precision speckle pattern reconstruction for high contrast imaging
• Low-order wavefront control using a Zernike sensor through Lyot coronagraphs for exoplanet imaging