Retired A Stars Revisited: An Updated Giant Planet Occurrence Rate as a Function of Stellar Metallicity and Mass

Abstract

Exoplanet surveys of evolved stars have provided increasing evidence that the formation of giant planets depends not only on stellar metallicity ([Fe/H]), but also the mass ($M_{\star }$). However, measuring accurate masses for subgiants and giants is far more challenging than it is for their main-sequence counterparts, which has led to recent concerns regarding the veracity of the correlation between stellar mass and planet occurrence. In order to address these concerns we use HIRES spectra to perform a spectroscopic analysis on an sample of 245 subgiants and derive new atmospheric and physical parameters. We also calculate the space velocities of this sample in a homogeneous manner for the first time. When reddening corrections are considered in the calculations of stellar masses and a -0.12 M${}_{\odot }$ offset is applied to the results, the masses of the subgiants are consistent with their space velocity distributions, contrary to claims in the literature. Similarly, our measurements of their rotational velocities provide additional confirmation that the masses of subgiants with $M_{\star }\ge 1.6$ M${}_{\odot }$ (the "Retired A Stars") have not been overestimated in previous analyses. Using these new results for our sample of evolved stars, together with an updated sample of FGKM dwarfs, we confirm that giant planet occurrence increases with both stellar mass and metallicity up to 2.0 M${}_{\odot }$. We show that the probability of formation of a giant planet is approximately a one-to-one function of the total amount of metals in the protoplanetary disk $M_{\star }10^{[Fe/H]}$. This correlation provides additional support for the core accretion mechanism of planet formation.

arXiv commentAccepted for publication in ApJ. Changes from v1 to v2: Figure 16 was updated. Changes from v2 to v3: Figure 9 was corrected. None of the results in the paper are affected

References in corpus (64)

• The NumPy array: a structure for efficient numerical computation
• The chemical composition of the Sun
• The Gaia mission
• PARSEC: stellar tracks and isochrones with the PAdova and TRieste Stellar Evolution Code
• Validation of the new Hipparcos reduction
• Gaia Data Release 1. Summary of the astrometric, photometric, and survey properties
• The Geneva-Copenhagen survey of the Solar neighbourhood: Ages, metallicities, and kinematic properties of 14,000 F and G dwarfs
• Accurate masses and radii of normal stars: modern results and applications
• The false positive rate of Kepler and the occurrence of planets
• New constraints on the chemical evolution of the solar neighbourhood and Galactic disc(s). Improved astrophysical parameters for the Geneva-Copenhagen Survey
• The Mass Dependence Between Protoplanetary Disks and their Stellar Hosts
• Giant Planet Occurrence in the Stellar Mass-Metallicity Plane
• Star counts in the Galaxy. Simulating from very deep to very shallow photometric surveys with the TRILEGAL code
• Spectroscopic parameters for 451 stars in the HARPS GTO planet search program. Stellar [Fe/H] and the frequency of exo-Neptunes
• The effective temperature scale of FGK stars. II. Teff : color : [Fe/H] calibrations
• The formation and retention of gas giant planets around stars with a range of metallicities
• Basic physical parameters of a selected sample of evolved stars
• Accurate, Empirical Radii and Masses of Planets and their Host Stars with Gaia Parallaxes
• A new implementation of the infrared flux method using the 2MASS catalogue
• The Galactic disk mass-budget : I. stellar mass-function and density
• Gaia Data Release 1: Catalogue validation
• Spectral Properties of Cool Stars: Extended Abundance Analysis of 1617 Planet Search Stars
• Radial Velocity Jitter in Stars from the California and Carnegie Planet Search at Keck Observatory
• Pulkovo Compilation of Radial Velocities for 35495 Hipparcos Stars in a Common System
• Improved spectroscopic parameters for transiting planet hosts
• A non-LTE study of neutral and singly-ionized iron line spectra in 1D models of the Sun and selected late-type stars
• Precise Radial Velocities of Giant Stars VII. Occurrence Rate of Giant Extrasolar Planets as a Function of Mass and Metallicity
• ARES v2 - new features and improved performance
• The PASTEL catalogue: 2016 version
• Fast Star, Slow Star; Old Star, Young Star: Subgiant Rotation as a Population and Stellar Physics Diagnostic
• Stellar Parameters and Metallicities of Stars Hosting Jovian and Neptunian Mass Planets: A Possible Dependence of Planetary Mass on Metallicity
• Revealing A Universal Planet-Metallicity Correlation For Planets of Different Sizes Around Solar-Type Stars
• XHIP: An Extended Hipparcos Compilation
• The TRENDS High-Contrast Imaging Survey. IV. The Occurrence Rate of Giant Planets around M-Dwarfs
• Deriving precise parameters for cool solar-type stars. Optimizing the iron line list
• Stellar parameters and chemical abundances of 223 evolved stars with and without planets
• An Eccentric Hot Jupiter Orbiting the Subgiant HD 185269
• A Long-Period Jupiter-Mass Planet Orbiting the Nearby M Dwarf GJ849
• Evidence for the Tidal Destruction of Hot Jupiters by Subgiant Stars
• The broadening of Fe II lines by neutral hydrogen collisions
• Stellar Chemical Abundances: In Pursuit of the Highest Achievable Precision
• Abundances of Stars with Planets: Trends with Condensation Temperature
• Evidence for a systematic offset of $-$0.25 mas in the Gaia DR1 parallaxes
• "Retired" Planet Hosts: Not So Massive, Maybe Just Portly After Lunch
• Retired A Stars and Their Companions IV. Seven Jovian Exoplanets from Keck Observatory
• A high precision chemical abundance analysis of the HAT-P-1 stellar binary: constraints on planet formation
• A Comparison of Stellar Elemental Abundance Techniques and Measurements
• Metallicities of Planet Hosting Stars: A Sample of Giants and Subgiants
• Consistent metallicity scale for cool dwarfs and giants. A benchmark test using the Hyades
• Four new planets around giant stars and the mass-metallicity correlation of planet-hosting stars
• Effective temperatures, rotational velocities, microturbulent velocities and abundances in the atmospheres of the Sun,. HD1835 and HD10700
• The Mass Distribution of Subgiant Planet Hosts
• Homogeneous spectroscopic parameters for bright planet host stars from the northern hemisphere
• The Physical Parameters of the Retired A Star HD185351
• Retired A Stars: The Effect of Stellar Evolution on the Mass Estimates of Subgiants
• An Understanding of the Shoulder of Giants: Jovian Planets around Late K Dwarf Stars and the Trend with Stellar Mass
• The masses of retired A stars with asteroseismology: Kepler and K2 observations of exoplanet hosts
• Verifying reddening and extinction for Gaia DR1 TGAS main sequence stars
• Asteroseismic masses of retired planet-hosting A-stars using SONG
• Beyond the Main Sequence: Testing the accuracy of stellar masses predicted by the PARSEC evolutionary tracks
• Tracking Advanced Planetary Systems with HARPS-N (TAPAS). I. A multiple planetary system around the red giant star TYC 1422-614-1
• Spectroscopic study of red giants in the Kepler field with asteroseismologically established evolutionary status and stellar parameters
• Weighing in on the masses of retired A stars with asteroseismology: K2 observations of the exoplanet-host star HD 212771
• A new procedure for defining a homogenous line-list for solar-type stars

Cited by in corpus (77)

• The Gemini Planet Imager Exoplanet Survey: Giant Planet and Brown Dwarf Demographics From 10-100 AU
• First grids of low-mass stellar models and isochrones with self-consistent treatment of rotation : From 0.2 to 1.5 M_\odot at 7 metallicities from PMS to TAMS
• Two new HATNet hot Jupiters around A stars, and the first glimpse at the occurrence rate of hot Jupiters from TESS
• A Spectroscopic Analysis of the California-Kepler Survey Sample: I. Stellar Parameters, Planetary Radii and a Slope in the Radius Gap
• A public relativistic transfer function model for X-ray reverberation mapping of accreting black holes
• A stellar mass dependence of structured disks: a possible link with exoplanet demographics
• The CARMENES search for exoplanets around M dwarfs. Guaranteed time observations Data Release 1 (2016-2020)
• Heavy metal rules. I. Exoplanet incidence and metallicity
• A Jovian analogue orbiting a white dwarf star
• Occurrence and Architecture of Kepler Planetary Systems as Functions of Stellar Mass and Effective Temperature
• Why do M dwarfs have more transiting planets?
• RV-detected planets around M dwarfs: Challenges for core accretion models
• Exploring the Dependence of Hot Jupiter Occurrence Rates on Stellar Mass with TESS
• Giant planet occurrence within 0.2 AU of low-luminosity red giant branch stars with K2
• Astrophysical Insights into Radial Velocity Jitter from an Analysis of 600 Planet-search Stars
• Precise radial velocities of giant stars XVI. Planet occurrence rates from the combined analysis of the Lick, EXPRESS, and PPPS giant star surveys
• TOI-5205 b: A Short-period Jovian Planet Transiting a Mid-M Dwarf
• Connecting substellar and stellar formation. The role of the host star's metallicity
• Kozai Migration Naturally Explains the White Dwarf Planet WD1856b
• Cold giant planets evaporated by hot white dwarfs
• Extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs around AF-type stars. X.The SOPHIE northern sample. Combining the SOPHIE and HARPS surveys to compute the close giant planet mass-period distribution around AF-type stars
• Planetary Population Synthesis and the Emergence of Four Classes of Planetary System Architectures
• The Curious Case of KOI 4: Confirming Kepler's First Exoplanet
• Retired A Stars and Their Companions VIII: 15 New Planetary Signals Around Subgiants and Transit Parameters for California Planet Search Planets with Subgiant Hosts
• Giant planet engulfment by evolved giant stars: light curves, asteroseismology, and survivability
• The Masses of a Sample of Radial-Velocity Exoplanets with Astrometric Measurements
• Substructures in Compact Disks of the Taurus Star-forming Region
• Secular chaos in white-dwarf planetary systems: origins of metal pollution and short-period planetary companions
• Carbon, isotopic ratio ${}^{12}$C/${}^{13}$C and nitrogen in solar twins: constraints for the chemical evolution of the local disc
• Exoplanet Populations and their Dependence on Host Star Properties
• Evidence for Primordial Alignment: Insights from Stellar Obliquity Measurements for Compact Sub-Saturn Systems
• Fluorine Abundances in the Galactic Disk
• SPECIES II. Stellar parameters of the EXPRESS program giant star sample
• The Spin-Orbit Misalignment of TOI-1842b: The First Measurement of the Rossiter-McLaughlin Effect for a Warm Sub-Saturn around a Massive Star
• The Influence of 10 Unique Chemical Elements in Shaping the Distribution of Kepler Planets
• Constraining planet formation around 6$M_{\odot }$-8$M_{\odot }$ stars
• Bayesian Approach for Determining Microlens System Properties with High-Angular-Resolution Follow-up Imaging
• A Spectroscopic Analysis of the California-Kepler Survey Sample: II. Correlations of Stellar Metallicities with Planetary Architectures
• Emerging trends in metallicity and lithium properties of debris disc stars
• Life on Exoplanets In the Habitable Zone of M-Dwarfs?
• ARMADA I: Triple Companions Detected in B-Type Binaries alpha Del and nu Gem
• On the pollution of white dwarfs by exo-Oort cloud comets
• Asteroseismic masses of four evolved planet-hosting stars using SONG and TESS: resolving the retired A-star mass controversy
• A decade of radial-velocity monitoring of Vega and new limits on the presence of planets
• The bulk metallicity of giant planets around M stars
• EDEN Survey: Small Transiting Planet Detection Limits and Constraints on the Occurrence Rates for Late M Dwarfs within 15 pc
• The grain size survival threshold in one-planet post-main-sequence exoplanetary systems
• The Scorpion Planet Survey: Wide-Orbit Giant Planets Around Young A-type Stars
• Lack of close-in, massive planets of main-sequence A-type stars from Kepler
• Asteroid belt survival through stellar evolution: dependence on the stellar mass
• Data calibration for the MASCARA and bRing instruments
• HD 83443c: A highly eccentric giant planet on a 22-year orbit
• A Spectroscopic Analysis of a Sample of K2 Planet-Host Stars: Stellar Parameters, Metallicities and Planetary Radii
• Gemini-GRACES high-quality spectra of Kepler evolved stars with transiting planets I. Detailed characterization of multi-planet systems Kepler-278 and Kepler-391
• Improved companion mass limits for Sirius A with thermal infrared coronagraphy using a vector-apodizing phase plate and time-domain starlight-subtraction techniques
• Constraining the Planet Occurrence Rate around Halo Stars of Potentially Extragalactic Origin
• Mutual Occurrence Ratio of Planets. I. New Clues to Reveal Origins of Hot- and Warm-Jupiter from the RV Sample
• Shaping Galactic Habitability: the impact of stellar migration and gas giants
• A super-Earth and a mini-Neptune around Kepler-59
• A comprehensive study of the relations between the properties of planetary systems and the chemical compositions of their host stars
• Weighing stars from birth to death: mass determination methods across the HRD
• TOI-3568 b: a super-Neptune in the sub-Jovian desert
• Planetary system architectures with low-mass inner planets: Direct imaging exploration of mature systems beyond 1 au
• A candidate giant planet companion to the massive, young white dwarf GALEX J071816.4+373139 informs the occurrence of giant planets orbiting B stars
• Elemental Abundances of Kepler Objects of Interest in APOGEE DR17
• M dwarf spectral indices at moderate resolution: accurate $T_{\mathrm{eff}}$ and [Fe/H] for 178 southern stars
• The Formation of Double Hot Jupiter Systems through von Zeipel-Lidov-Kozai Migration
• Companions to Kepler giant stars: A long-period eccentric substellar companion to KIC 3526061 and a stellar companion to HD 187878
• How stellar mass and disc size shape the formation and migration of super-Earths
• Stellar Characterization and a Chromospheric Activity Analysis of a K2 Sample of Planet-Hosting Stars
• A new third planet and the dynamical architecture of the HD33142 planetary system
• Mass evaluation for red giant stars based on the spectroscopically determined atmospheric parameters
• Ground to Dust: Collisional Cascades and the Fate of Kardashev II Megaswarms
• Search for giant planets in M67 V: a warm Jupiter orbiting the turn-off star S1429
• Evidence for the Late Arrival of Hot Jupiters in Systems with High Host-star Obliquities
• HD 715 b, a Warm Jupiter Orbiting a Massive Subgiant Discovered from a Single TESS Transit
• The SOL $\text{(Solar Origin and Life)}$ Project: Detailed characterization of candidates for the ZAMS and Subgiant stages