Cosmology at Low Frequencies: The 21 cm Transition and the High-Redshift Universe

Abstract

Observations of the high-redshift Universe with the 21 cm hyperfine line of neutral hydrogen promise to open an entirely new window onto the early phases of cosmic structure formation. Here we review the physics of the 21 cm transition, focusing on processes relevant at high redshifts, and describe the insights to be gained from such observations. These include measuring the matter power spectrum at z~50, observing the formation of the cosmic web and the first luminous sources, and mapping the reionization of the intergalactic medium. The epoch of reionization is of particular interest, because large HII regions will seed substantial fluctuations in the 21 cm background. We also discuss the experimental challenges involved in detecting this signal, with an emphasis on the Galactic and extragalactic foregrounds. These increase rapidly toward low frequencies and are especially severe for the highest redshift applications. Assuming that these difficulties can be overcome, the redshifted 21 cm line will offer unique insight into the high-redshift Universe, complementing other probes but providing the only direct, three-dimensional view of structure formation from z~200 to z~6.

extended review accepted by Physics Reports, 207 pages, 44 figures (some low resolution); version with high resolution figures available at http://pantheon.yale.edu/~srf28/21cm/index.htm; minor changes to match published version

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• The Wouthuysen-Field effect in a clumpy intergalactic medium
• Searching for the earliest galaxies in the 21 cm forest
• Galaxy-cluster masses via 21st-century measurements of lensing of 21-cm fluctuations
• An Integrated System at the Bleien Observatory for Mapping the Galaxy
• Dark Cosmology: Investigating Dark Matter & Exotic Physics in the Dark Ages using the Redshifted 21-cm Global Spectrum
• Contribution of Galactic free-free emission to the foreground for EoR signal in SKA experiments
• A Lunar Farside Low Radio Frequency Array for Dark Ages 21-cm Cosmology
• Analysing the Epoch of Reionization with three-point correlation functions and machine learning techniques
• Black holes at cosmic dawn in the redshifted 21cm signal of HI
• Calibration requirements for Epoch of Reionization 21-cm signal observations -- II. Analytical estimation of the bias and variance with time-correlated residual gains
• Validation Solutions to the Full-Sky Radio Interferometry Measurement Equation for Diffuse Emission
• Detecting galaxy-21-cm cross-correlation during reionization
• Prospects for Observing High-redshift Radio-loud Quasars in the SKA Era: Paving the Way for 21-cm Forest Observations
• Primordial Magnetic Fields in Light of Dark Ages Global 21-cm Signal
• FlexKnot as a Generalised Model of the Sky-averaged 21-cm Signal at z ~ 6-30 in the Presence of Systematics
• Dark ages, a window on the dark sector. Hunting for ultra-light axions
• Searching for dilaton fields in the Ly$\alpha$ forest
• Evolution of magnetic fields in cosmic string wakes
• Anisotropies in Cosmological 21 cm Background by Oscillons/I-balls of Ultra-light Axion-like Particle
• Mapping the Universe in HD
• Radiative transfer of Lyman-$\alpha$ photons at cosmic dawn with realistic gas physics
• Lunar Far-Side Radio Arrays: A Preliminary Site Survey
• Modelling the 21 cm Signal From the Epoch of Reionization and Cosmic Dawn
• Delay-Weighted Calibration: Precision Calibration for 21 cm Cosmology with Resilience to Sky Model Error
• Why and When to Expect Gaussian Error Distributions in Epoch of Reionization 21-cm Power Spectrum Measurements
• The mass distribution of the first stars can be determined via the 21-cm signal
• Let there be Light: the Emergence of Structure out of the Dark Ages in the Early Universe
• Robust statistics toward detection of the 21 cm signal from the Epoch of Reionisation
• Reionization: Characteristic Scales, Topology and Observability
• Lyman Alpha Emitters and the 21cm Power Spectrum as Probes of Density-Ionization Correlation in the Epoch of Reionization
• Accuracy vs. Complexity: Calibrating radio interferometer arrays with non-homogeneous element patterns
• Joint 21-cm and CMB Forecasts for Constraining Self-Interacting Massive Neutrinos
• Ensuring Robustness in Training Set Based Global 21-cm Cosmology Analysis
• Constraining the 21cm brightness temperature of the IGM at $z$=6.6 around LAEs with the Murchison Widefield Array
• Probing Ultra-light Axion Dark Matter from 21cm Tomography using Convolutional Neural Networks
• First upper limits on the 21-cm signal power spectrum of neutral hydrogen at $z=9.16$ from the LOFAR 3C196 field
• Modified dispersion relations and a potential explanation of the EDGES anomaly
• Unveiling the Universe with Emerging Cosmological Probes
• Impact of cosmic rays on the global 21-cm signal during cosmic dawn
• Redshifted 21cm Observations of High Redshift Quasar Proximity Zones
• Modeling Post-Reionization HI Distributions in Fuzzy Dark Matter Cosmologies Using Conditional Normalizing Flows
• Altitude Estimation of Radio Frequency Interference Sources via Interferometric Near Field Corrections
• Analyzing the 21cm forest with Wavelet Scattering Transform: Insight into non-Gaussian features of the 21cm forest
• A Comparative Analysis To Deal With Missing Spectral Information Caused By RFI In Cosmological HI 21CM Observations
• Rapid and Late Cosmic Reionization Driven by Massive Galaxies: a Joint Analysis of Constraints from 21-cm, Lyman Line & CMB Data Sets
• High-$z$ radio Quasars in RACS I: Selection, identification, and multi-wavelength properties
• The impact of non-Planckian effects on cosmological radio backgrounds
• Baryon acoustic oscillations from HI intensity mapping: the importance of cross-correlations in the monopole and quadrupole
• Bayesian Multi-line Intensity Mapping
• A Multi-messenger view of Cosmic Dawn: Conquering the Final Frontier
• Direct Parameter Inference from Global EoR Signal with Bayesian Statistics
• The 21cm Signature of Early Relic \HII Regions
• Foreground and sensitivity analysis for broad band (2D) 21cm--Ly-alpha and 21cm--H-alpha correlation experiments probing the Epoch of Reionization
• The Tracking Tapered Gridded Estimator (TTGE) for the power spectrum from drift scan observations
• Constraints on freeze-in dark matter from Lyman-$\alpha$ forest and 21-cm signal : single-field models
• Direction-dependent effects on global 21-cm detection
• Revisiting primordial magnetic fields through 21-cm physics: Bounds and forecasts
• A Differentiable, End-to-End Forward Model for 21 cm Cosmology: Estimating the Foreground, Instrument, and Signal Joint Posterior
• Measurements of one-point statistics in 21 cm intensity maps via foreground avoidance strategy
• Interpreting the HI 21-cm cosmology maps through Largest Cluster Statistics -- I: Impact of the synthetic SKA1-Low observations
• Reionization in the Light of Dark Stars
• Studying the Multi-frequency Angular Power Spectrum of the Cosmic Dawn 21-cm Signal
• Studying neutral hydrogen structures during the epoch of reionization using fractal dimensions
• STARFIRE: An algorithm for estimating radio frequency interference in orbits around Earth
• Sensitivity of the Global 21-cm Signal to Dark Matter-Baryon Scattering
• Comparing sampling techniques to chart parameter space of 21 cm Global signal with Artificial Neural Networks
• Redshifted 21-cm emission signal from the halos in Dark Ages
• Deep learning approach for identification of HII regions during reionization in 21-cm observations -- III. image recovery
• Skew spectrum and smoothed skewness of 21-cm signals from epoch of reionization
• Statistical estimation of full-sky radio maps from 21cm array visibility data using Gaussian constrained realizations
• Understanding spectral artefacts in SKA-LOW 21-cm cosmology experiments: the impact of cable reflections
• 21-cm Constraints on Dark Matter Annihilation after an Early Matter-Dominated Era
• Automated Detection of Antenna Malfunctions in Large-N Interferometers: A Case Study with the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array
• White Noise from Dark Matter: 21 cm Observations of Early Baryon Collapse
• Signal in the Hyperfine Structure Line of the Ground State of Atomic Hydrogen from the Dark Ages as a Cosmological Test
• The Impact of ionization Morphology and X-ray Heating on the Cosmological 21cm Skew Spectrum
• Prospects of a statistical detection of the 21-cm forest and its potential to constrain the thermal state of the neutral IGM during reionization
• Observable cosmological vector mode in the dark ages
• Improvements to the Search for Cosmic Dawn Using the Long Wavelength Array
• Boosting the 21 cm forest signals by the clumpy substructures
• Probing the Epoch of Reionization using synergies of line intensity mapping
• Characterizing Beam Errors for Radio Interferometric Observations of Reionization
• Accounting for Noise and Singularities in Bayesian Calibration Methods for Global 21-cm Cosmology Experiments
• Prospects for probing dark matter particles and primordial black holes with the Hongmeng mission using the 21 cm global spectrum at cosmic dawn
• Comparison of Bayesian inference methods using the Loreli II database of hydro-radiative simulations of the 21-cm signal
• Global signal in the redshifted hydrogen 21-cm line from the Dark Ages and Cosmic Dawn: Dependence on the nature of dark matter and modeling of first light
• Prospects for cosmological research with the FAST array: 21-cm intensity mapping survey observation strategies
• Ionospheric effect on the synthetic Epoch of Reionization observations with the SKA1-Low
• Probing self-interacting ultrahigh-energy neutrinos with the cosmic 21-cm signal
• Optimization of Antenna Performance for Global 21-cm Observations and Verification Using Scaled Copies
• Reconstructing patchy helium reionization using the cosmic microwave background and large-scale structure
• Reconstructing the Long-wavelength Matter Density Fluctuation Modes from the Scalar-Type Clustering Fossils
• A Bayesian Method to Mitigate the Effects of Unmodelled Time-Varying Systematics for 21-cm Cosmology Experiments
• Analyzing the 21-cm signal brightness temperature in the Universe with inhomogeneities
• A Bayesian approach to modelling spectrometer data chromaticity corrected using beam factors -- II. Model priors and posterior odds
• Imprints of dark matter-massive neutrino interaction in upcoming post-reionization and galaxy surveys
• Field-level Reconstruction from Foreground-Contaminated 21-cm Maps
• Measuring the global 21-cm signal with the MWA-II: improved characterisation of lunar-reflected radio frequency interference
• Low-Frequency Radio Recombination Lines Away From the Inner Galactic Plane
• The Statistics of Negative Power Spectrum Systematics in some 21 cm Analyses
• Low-cost, Low-loss, Ultra-wideband Compact Feed for Interferometric Radio Telescopes
• Simulating the collapse of rotating primordial gas clouds to study the survival possibility of Pop III protostars
• Forecasting 21-cm power spectrum sensitivity to dark Matter-baryon scattering
• Constraining a Model of the Radio Sky Below 6 MHz Using the Parker Solar Probe/FIELDS Instrument in Preparation for Upcoming Lunar-based Experiments
• Bayesian jackknife tests with a small number of subsets: Application to HERA 21cm power spectrum upper limits
• Cross-correlation of the Polarizations of the 21-cm and Cosmic Microwave Backgrounds
• Effects of Small-Scale Absorption Systems on Neutral Islands during the Late Epoch of Reionization
• The Global 21 cm Signal of a Network of Cosmic String Wakes
• Simulations of ionospheric refraction on radio interferometric data
• Probing the physics and history of cosmic reionization with the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect
• HI Intensity Mapping with the MIGHTEE Survey: First Results of the HI Power Spectrum
• Global 21 cm signal: a promising probe of primordial features
• Reionization Parameter Inference from 3D Minkowski Functionals of the 21 cm Signals
• Reionizing islands with inhomogeneous recombinations
• Towards a multi-tracer neutrino mass measurement with line-intensity mapping
• Performance of the Segment Anything Model in Various RFI/Events Detection in Radio Astronomy
• Synthetic Observations with the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) -- development towards an end-to-end pipeline
• The 21cm-galaxy cross-correlation: Realistic forecast for 21cm signal detection and reionisation constraints
• Two-photon spontaneous emission of an atom in a cosmic string background
• Cross correlations of the CMB Doppler mode and the 21 cm brightness temperature in the presence of a primordial magnetic field
• Fisher matrix forecasts on the astrophysics of galaxies during the epoch of reionisation from the 21-cm power spectra
• Exploring One-point Statistics in HERA Phase I Data: Effects of Foregrounds and Systematics on Measuring One-Point Statistics
• Reionisation time fields reconstruction from 21 cm signal maps
• Reconstructing HI power spectrum with minimal parameters using the dark matter distribution beyond halos
• Narrowing the discovery space of the cosmological 21-cm signal using multi-wavelength constraints
• Cospatial 21 cm and metal-line absorbers in the epoch of reionization -- I : Incidence and observability
• On the Detectability of the Hydrogen 3-cm Fine Structure Line from the EoR
• Catching p via s wave with indirect detection
• Impact of Calibration and Position Errors on Astrophysical Parameters of the HI 21cm Signal
• Global 21cm Absorption Signal from Superconducting Cosmic Strings
• On Measuring the 21 cm Global Spectrum of the Cosmic Dawn with an Interferometer Array
• Mind the gap: the power of combining photometric surveys with intensity mapping
• Predictions of the 21cm global signal in the JWST and ALMA era
• Radiometer Calibration using Machine Learning
• Testing General Relativity with Cosmological Large Scale Structure
• The Infancy of Cosmic Reionization
• Signatures of inhomogeneous dark matter annihilation on 21-cm
• Probing Non-Minimal Dark Sectors via the 21 cm Line at Cosmic Dawn
• Direct correlation of line intensity mapping and CMB lensing from evolution along the lightcone
• Extracting the Epoch of Reionization Signal with 3D U-Net Neural Networks Using Data-driven Systematic Effect Model
• oLIMpus: An Effective Model for Line Intensity Mapping Auto- and Cross- Power Spectra in Cosmic Dawn and Reionization
• Large, fast and accurate HI intensity maps with latent overlap diffusion
• 21 cm Signal from the Thermal Evolution of Lyman-$\alpha$ during Cosmic Dawn
• Particle production during inflation: constraints expected from redshifted 21 cm observations from the epoch of reionization
• The signature of galaxy formation models in the power spectrum of the hydrogen 21cm line during reionization
• EDGES of the dark forest: A new absorption window into the composite dark matter and large scale structure
• From ANN to BNN: Inferring Reionization Parameters using Uncertainty-aware Emulators of 21-cm Summaries
• ECHO21: a tool for modelling global 21-cm signal from dark ages to reionization
• An Alcock-Paczynski Test on Reionization Bubbles for Cosmology
• What can we learn about Reionization astrophysical parameters using Gaussian Process Regression?
• Astrophysical uncertainties challenge 21-cm forecasts: A primordial black hole case study
• Squeezing information from radio surveys to probe the primordial Universe
• Epoch of Reionization Power Spectrum Limits from Murchison Widefield Array Data Targeted at EoR1 Field
• In Search of Global 21-cm Signal using Artificial Neural Network in light of ARCADE 2
• Foreground removal and angular power spectrum estimation of 21 cm signal using harmonic space ILC method
• Accelerating HI density predictions during the Epoch of Reionization using a GPR-based emulator on N-body simulations
• Constraints on the galaxy formation models during epoch of reionization with high redshift observations
• The Optical Depth of Foregrounds for the Highest Redshift 21 cm Signals
• Blade Antenna-SDR System Prototype for the CANTAR Global 21-cm Experiment: Simulations, Measurements, and In-Situ Results
• Confronting global 21-cm signal with ${\mathbb{Z}}_3$ symmetric dark matter models
• The impact of lunar topography on the 21-cm power spectrum for grid-based arrays : Insights for the Dark-ages EXplorer (DEX)
• Rise of the forsaken relics: connecting present-day stellar streams and phase-mixed galaxies to the Epoch of Reionization
• Machine Learning-Driven Analysis of kSZ Maps to Predict CMB Optical Depth $\tau$
• 21 cm Cosmology Sensitivity to Small-Scale Structure: Warm vs Neutrino-Interacting Dark Matter
• The magnitude of the dark ages 21-cm signal in the context of existing early and late time constraints on $\Lambda$CDM
• Is a Classical Language Adequate in Assessing the Detectability of the Redshifted 21cm Signal from the Early Universe?
• Probing Interacting Dark Sectors with upcoming Post-Reionization and Galaxy Surveys
• Foreground removal in HI 21 cm intensity mapping under frequency-dependent beam distortions
• Noise Reduction Method for Radio Astronomy Single Station Observation Based on Wavelet Transform and Mathematical Morphology
• A semi-cosmographic approach to study cosmological evolution in phase space
• Axion-Photon Conversion In Magnetized Universe: Impact On The Global 21-cm Signal
• An Instrument Error Budget for Space-Based Absolute Flux Measurements of the Sky Synchrotron Spectrum Below 20 MHz
• Influence of the deviation of the matter power spectrum at small scales on the global 21-cm signal at cosmic dawn
• Beamforming approaches toward detecting the 21-cm global signal from Cosmic Dawn with radio array telescopes
• Mapping neutral islands during end stages of reionization with photometric intergalactic medium tomography
• Imprints of fermionic and bosonic mixed dark matter on the 21-cm signal at cosmic dawn
• Einstein-Cartan cosmology and the high-redshift Universe
• Radiative transfer of 21-cm line through ionised cavities in an expanding universe
• Design Equations for a Closely-Spaced Two-Element Interferometer Including Internal Noise Coupling
• Thermal Evolution of the IGM due to Lyman-α photons during the Cosmic Dawn
• Constraining the [CII] luminosity function from the power spectrum of line-intensity maps at redshift 3.6
• Impact of astrophysical effects on the dark matter mass constraint with 21cm intensity mapping
• Modified Cosmology or Modified Galaxy Astrophysics is Driving the z>6 JWST Results? CMB Experiments can discover the Origin in the Near Future
• Capturing System Drift with Time Series Calibration for Global 21-cm Cosmology Experiments
• Nonlinear reconstruction of 21cm global signal from 21cm power spectrum with artificial neural networks
• Direction-Dependent Polarised Primary Beams in Wide-Field Synthesis Imaging
• Removing systematics-induced 21-cm foreground residuals by cross-correlating filtered data
• Quantifying and mitigating the effect of snapshot interval in light-cone Epoch of Reionization 21-cm simulations
• A Comprehensive Bayesian re-analysis of the SARAS2 data from the Epoch of Reionization
• Exploring delaying and heating effects on the 21-cm signature of fuzzy dark matter
• Constraining beyond $\Lambda$CDM models with 21cm intensity mapping forecast observations combined with latest CMB data
• An SBC-based controller and processor for the laboratory model of PRATUSH Digital Receiver
• Efficient neutral-IGM inference from noisy 21-cm forest spectra with latent-space U-Net encoding and XGBoost
• Imaging the Southern Sky at 159MHz using Spherical Harmonics with the Engineering Development Array 2
• A Multi-Site Study of Radio Environment for Cosmology Experiments
• Sample Variance Denoising in Cylindrical 21-cm Power Spectra
• Cosmological free-free emission from dark matter halos in the $\Lambda$CDM model
• Probing power spectrum enhancement at small scales with the SKA
• Mitigating gain calibration errors from EoR observations with SKA1-Low AA*
• Power spectrum multipoles and clustering wedges during the Epoch of Reionization
• Testing the growth of cosmic structures during the Dark Ages
• Primordial black holes and the velocity acoustic oscillations features in 21 cm signals from the cosmic Dark Ages
• Exploring the Model Dependence of MCMC-Based 21 cm Power Spectrum Parameter Constraints
• A Monte Carlo Implementation of Galactic Free-Free Emission for the EoR Foreground Models
• A New Boundary Condition on Reionization
• Streaming Velocity Effects on the Post-reionization 21 cm Baryon Acoustic Oscillation Signal
• Configuration Requirements for 21-cm Forest Background Quasar Searches with the Moon-based Interferometer
• A testable hypothesis on the possible role of electron spin in the origin of bio-homochirality
• POLAR-II: modeling star formation history of galaxies on the 21-cm signal from Epoch of Reionization
• Weak Lensing the non-Linear Ly-alpha Forest
• Uncertainty-Aware Neural Networks for Fuzzy Dark Matter Model Selection from \texorpdfstring{$x_{\mathrm{HI}}$}{x_HI} Measurements
• Probing the large-scale structure with 21cm-galaxy cross-bispectrum: Estimates from simulations and forecasts for upcoming cosmological surveys
• Optimizing Foreground Modelling for Global 21cm Cosmology with GPU-Accelerated Nested Sampling
• Seeing Wiggles without Seeing Wiggles: BAO Recovery in 21 cm Intensity Mapping with Deep Learning
• Spectral distortions in CMB by the bulk Comptonization due to Zeldovich pancakes
• Gravitational Wave Informed Inference of 21-cm Global Signal Parameters
• CosmoUiT: A Vision Transformer-UNet Hybrid for Fast and Accurate Emulation of 21-cm Maps from the Epoch of Reionization
• Dark Matter Energy Deposition and Production from the Table-Top to the Cosmos
• On the accuracy of posterior recovery with neural network emulators
• The BINGO project X. Cosmological parameter constraints from HI Intensity Mapping lognormal simulations
• Operational Non-identifiability of Single-epoch Low-rank RFI Mitigation: Controlled Failure-mode Analysis and HERA Evidence
• Calibrating Bayesian Tension Statistics using Neural Ratio Estimation
• Statistical inversion of the LOFAR Epoch of Reionization experiment data model
• It's Always Darkest Before the Cosmic Dawn: Early Results from Novel Tools and Telescopes for 21 cm Cosmology
• Probing Cosmological Reionization through Radio-interferometric Observations of Neutral Hydrogen
• Simulation based inference of the ionization history from the 2D 21 cm power spectrum
• Exploring the Early Universe with Deep Learning
• A bubble size distribution model for the Epoch of Reionization
• Sensitivity of the redshifted 21 cm signal from the Dark Ages to parameters of primordial magnetic fields
• The DORCHA suite: nature, nurture, and the phase space distribution of the Milky Way's high redshift progenitors today
• Recovering 21cm Monopole Signals Without Smoothness
• Probing the Inflaton Potential with SKA
• Detecting the signature of helium reionization through 3HeII 3.46cm line-intensity mapping
• Implications of the cosmological 21-cm absorption profile for high-redshift star formation and deep JWST surveys
• First Light: Switching on Stars at the Dawn of Time
• Cosmological bounds on dark matter annihilation using dark ages 21-cm signal
• Sensitivities on non-spinning and spinning primordial black hole dark matter with global 21 cm troughs
• The MWA Long Baseline Epoch of Reionisation Survey: I. Improved Source Catalogue for the EoR 0 field