21cmFAST: A Fast, Semi-Numerical Simulation of the High-Redshift 21-cm Signal

Abstract

We introduce a powerful semi-numeric modeling tool, 21cmFAST, designed to efficiently simulate the cosmological 21-cm signal. Our code generates 3D realizations of evolved density, ionization, peculiar velocity, and spin temperature fields, which it then combines to compute the 21-cm brightness temperature. Although the physical processes are treated with approximate methods, we compare our results to a state-of-the-art large-scale hydrodynamic simulation, and find good agreement on scales pertinent to the upcoming observations (>~ 1 Mpc). The power spectra from 21cmFAST agree with those generated from the numerical simulation to within 10s of percent, down to the Nyquist frequency. We show results from a 1 Gpc simulation which tracks the cosmic 21-cm signal down from z=250, highlighting the various interesting epochs. Depending on the desired resolution, 21cmFAST can compute a redshift realization on a single processor in just a few minutes. Our code is fast, efficient, customizable and publicly available, making it a useful tool for 21-cm parameter studies.

18 pages, 12 figures, MNRAS submitted

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• Impact of EDGES 21cm Global Signal on Primordial Power Spectrum
• A case study of hurdle and generalized additive models in astronomy: the escape of ionizing radiation
• Simulating the Detection of the Global 21 cm Signal with MIST for Different Models of the Soil and Beam Directivity
• A Model-Insensitive Baryon Acoustic Oscillation Feature in the 21 cm Signal from Reionization
• Exploring the cosmic dawn and epoch of reionization with 21cm line
• Quantifying EoR delay spectrum contamination from diffuse radio emission
• Comparison of observing modes for statistical estimation of the 21cm signal from the Epoch of Reionisation
• Reionization with Simba: How much does astrophysics matter in modeling cosmic reionization?
• Dark-ages Reionization and Galaxy Formation Simulation - XIII. AGN quenching of high-redshift star formation in ZF-COSMOS-20115
• Measuring the Redshift of Reionization with a Modest Array of Low-Frequency Dipoles
• Deep-Learning Study of the 21cm Differential Brightness Temperature During the Epoch of Reionization
• POLAR -- I: linking the 21-cm signal from the epoch of reionization to galaxy formation
• Late-end reionization with ATON-HE: towards constraints from Lyman-$\alpha$ emitters observed with JWST
• Cosmological Probes of Structure Growth and Tests of Gravity
• Probing early universe through redshifted 21-cm signal: Modelling and observational challenges
• Measuring the cosmic expansion rate using 21-cm velocity acoustic oscillations
• Detecting the non-Gaussianity of the 21-cm signal during reionisation with the Wavelet Scattering Transform
• Probing dark matter interactions with 21cm observations
• Probing Reionization and Early Cosmic Enrichment with the MgII Forest
• Revised estimates of CMB $B$-mode polarization induced by patchy reionization
• Variations in fundamental constants at the cosmic dawn
• Ionization bias and the ghost proximity effect near $z\gtrsim 6$ quasars in the shadow of proximate absorption systems
• EDGES result versus CMB and low-redshift constraints on ionization histories
• Probing Compensated Isocurvature with the 21-cm Signal during Cosmic Dawn
• The Impact of Realistic Foreground and Instrument Models on 21cm Epoch of Reionization Experiments
• Probing Small Scale Primordial Power Spectrum with 21cm Line Global Signal
• Quantifying Density-Ionization Correlations with the 21cm Power Spectrum
• Accurate modelling of the Lyman-$\alpha$ coupling for the 21-cm signal, observability with NenuFAR and SKA
• Wavelet Based Statistics for Enhanced 21cm EoR Parameter Constraints
• 21-cm signatures of residual HI inside cosmic HII regions during reionization
• 21 cm line signal from magnetic modes
• Emulation of the Cosmic Dawn 21-cm Power Spectrum and Classification of Excess Radio Models Using an Artificial Neural Network
• Sensitivity of the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array and its Build-out Stages to One-point Statistics from Redshifted 21 cm Observations
• Statistical Detection of IGM Structures during Cosmic Reionization using Absorption of the Redshifted 21 cm line by HI against Compact Background Radio Sources
• Persistent topology of the reionization bubble network. II: Evolution & Classification
• A multi-tracer empirically-driven approach to line-intensity mapping lightcones
• Implications of the $z>5$ Lyman-$\alpha$ forest for the 21-cm power spectrum from the epoch of reionization
• The First Billion Years in Seconds: An Effective Model for the 21-cm Signal with Population III Stars
• Generating extremely large-volume reionisation simulations
• Photoevaporation of Minihalos during Cosmic Reionization: Primordial and Metal-Enriched Halos
• Subtracting Foregrounds from Interferometric Measurements of the Redshifted 21 cm Emission
• Edges and Endpoints in 21-cm Observations from Resonant Photon Production
• Dark ages reionization & galaxy formation simulation XII: Bubbles at dawn
• SCORCH. III. Analytical Models of Reionization with Varying Clumping Factors
• Ly$\alpha$ forest power spectrum as an emerging window into the epoch of reionization and cosmic dawn
• Is patchy reionization an obstacle in detecting the primordial gravitational wave signal?
• Investigating the Contribution of Extended Radio Sources to the Epoch of Reionisation Power Spectrum
• The multi-frequency angular power spectrum in parameter studies of the cosmic 21-cm signal
• Probing the primordial Universe with 21-cm line from cosmic dawn/epoch of reionization
• SKA-Low Intensity Mapping Pathfinder Updates: Deeper 21 cm Power Spectrum Limits from Improved Analysis Frameworks
• Two-dimensional Topology of Cosmological Reionization
• Cosmic Reionization On Computers. Mean and Fluctuating Redshifted 21 cm Signal
• Suppressing variance in 21-cm signal simulations during reionization
• A galaxy-free phenomenological model for the 21-cm power spectrum during reionization
• Cornering Extended Starobinsky Inflation with CMB and SKA
• Detecting primordial gravitational waves with circular polarization of the redshifted 21 cm line: I. Formalism
• Simultaneously constraining the astrophysics of reionisation and the epoch of heating with 21CMMC
• The Application of Continuous Wavelet Transform Based Foreground Subtraction Method in 21 cm Sky Surveys
• An Analytic Formulation of 21-cm Signal from Early Phase of Epoch of Reionization
• Probing delayed-end reionization histories with the 21cm-LAE cross-power spectrum
• Optimal, fast, and robust inference of reionization-era cosmology with the 21cmPIE-INN
• Semi-numeric simulations of helium reionization and the fluctuating radiation background
• EDGES signal in presence of magnetic fields
• Opening Reionization: Quantitative Morphology of the Epoch of Reionization and Its Connection to the Cosmic Density Field
• Quantiles as Robust Probes of Non-Gaussianity in 21-cm Images
• Lyman-alpha Emitters in Ionized Bubbles: Constraining the Environment and Ionized Fraction
• The HI Bias during the Epoch of Reionization
• The Impact of Cosmic Variance on Inferences of Global Neutral Fraction Derived from Ly$\alpha$ Luminosity Functions During Reionization
• Extracting the Global Signal from 21-cm Fluctuations: the Multi-Tracer Approach
• The 21-cm bispectrum from neutral hydrogen islands at z < 6
• Simulation-Based Inference of the sky-averaged 21-cm signal from CD-EoR with REACH
• Mapping reionization bubbles in the JWST era I: empirical edge detection with Lyman alpha emission from galaxies
• Dark-ages reionization and galaxy formation simulation XI: Clustering and halo masses of high redshift galaxies
• A new probe of magnetic fields in the pre-reionization epoch: II. Detectability
• Improved upper limits on the 21-cm signal power spectrum at $z=17.0$ and $z=20.3$ from an optimal field observed with NenuFAR
• Cosmic Radio Background from Primordial Black Holes at Cosmic Dawn
• Detection of Cosmic Structures using the Bispectrum Phase. I. Mathematical Foundations
• Thermal and Reionisation History within a Large-Volume Semi-Analytic Galaxy Formation Simulation
• A Global Semi-Analytic Model of the First Stars and Galaxies Including Dark Matter Halo Merger Histories
• A fast method of reionization parameter space exploration using GPR trained SCRIPT
• Estimation of HII Bubble Size Distribution from 21cm Power Spectrum with Artificial Neural Networks
• Extending Semi-numeric Reionisation Models to the First Stars and Galaxies
• Maximum amplitude of the high-redshift 21-cm absorption feature
• Extracting the astrophysics of reionization from the Ly$\alpha$ forest power spectrum: a first forecast
• Probing the intergalactic medium during the Epoch of Reionization using 21-cm signal power spectra
• 21cmFirstCLASS II. Early linear fluctuations of the 21cm signal
• Efficient exploration of reionization parameters for the upcoming 21 cm observations using a photon conserving semi-numerical model SCRIPT
• Detecting primordial gravitational waves with circular polarization of the redshifted 21 cm line: II. Forecasts
• Building models for extended radio sources: implications for Epoch of Reionisation science
• Upper Limits on the 21 cm Power Spectrum at z = 5.9 from Quasar Absorption Line Spectroscopy
• The EDGES measurement disfavors an excess radio background during the cosmic dawn
• Estimating the Feasibility of 21cm-Ly$\alpha$ Synergies using the Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array
• Distinguishing reionization models using the largest cluster statistics of the 21-cm maps
• Mapping discrete galaxies at cosmic dawn with 21-centimeter observations
• Efficient simulation of discrete galaxy populations and associated radiation fields during the first billion years
• Understanding the Impact of Semi-numeric Reionization Models when using CNNs
• Bounds on sterile neutrino lifetime and mixing angle with active neutrinos by global 21 cm signal
• Effects of feedback-free starburst galaxies on the 21-cm signal and reionization history
• Predicting 21cm-line map from Lyman $\alpha$ emitter distribution with Generative Adversarial Networks
• Antisymmetric Cross-correlation between H I and CO Line Intensity Maps as a New Probe of Cosmic Reionization
• Antisymmetric cross-correlation of line-intensity maps as a probe of reionization
• Probing Dark Relativistic Species and Their Interactions with Dark Matter through CMB and 21cm surveys
• Multi-frequency angular power spectrum of the 21~cm signal from the Epoch of Reionisation using the Murchison Widefield Array
• Square Kilometre Array Science Data Challenge 3a: foreground removal for an EoR experiment
• Constraining cosmological parameters from N-body simulations with Variational Bayesian Neural Networks
• Mapping reionization bubbles in the JWST era II: inferring the position and characteristic size of individual bubbles
• A Full Treatment of Peculiar Velocities on the Reionization Light Cone
• Detecting galaxy-21-cm cross-correlation during reionization
• Deep learning-driven likelihood-free parameter inference for 21-cm forest observations
• A detailed exploration of the EDGES 21 cm absorption anomaly and axion-induced cooling
• FlexKnot as a Generalised Model of the Sky-averaged 21-cm Signal at z ~ 6-30 in the Presence of Systematics
• Contribution of Galactic free-free emission to the foreground for EoR signal in SKA experiments
• Analysing the Epoch of Reionization with three-point correlation functions and machine learning techniques
• Using the sample variance of 21cm maps as a tracer of the ionisation topology
• Radiative transfer of Lyman-$\alpha$ photons at cosmic dawn with realistic gas physics
• Modelling the 21 cm Signal From the Epoch of Reionization and Cosmic Dawn
• SKATR: A Self-Supervised Summary Transformer for SKA
• Line of sight anisotropies in the Cosmic Dawn and EoR 21-cm power spectrum
• Robust statistics toward detection of the 21 cm signal from the Epoch of Reionisation
• Joint 21-cm and CMB Forecasts for Constraining Self-Interacting Massive Neutrinos
• SIMPLE: Simple Intensity Map Producer for Line Emission
• Lux ex tenebris: The imprint of annihilating dark matter on the intergalactic medium during Cosmic Dawn
• Semi-Numerical Simulation of Reionization with Semi-Analytical Modeling of Galaxy Formation
• Lyman Alpha Emitters and the 21cm Power Spectrum as Probes of Density-Ionization Correlation in the Epoch of Reionization
• Probing Ultra-light Axion Dark Matter from 21cm Tomography using Convolutional Neural Networks
• On improving analytical models of cosmic reionization for matching numerical simulation
• Modeling the Intergalactic Medium during the Epoch of Reionization
• Analytic Formulation of 21 cm Signal from Cosmic Dawn: Ly$\alpha$ Fluctuations
• Calibrating excursion set reionization models to approximately conserve ionizing photons
• Dark-ages reionization and galaxy formation simulation - IX. Economics of reionizing galaxies
• A Differentiable, End-to-End Forward Model for 21 cm Cosmology: Estimating the Foreground, Instrument, and Signal Joint Posterior
• Foreground and sensitivity analysis for broad band (2D) 21cm--Ly-alpha and 21cm--H-alpha correlation experiments probing the Epoch of Reionization
• ScamPy -- A sub-halo clustering & abundance matching based Python interface for painting galaxies on the dark matter halo/sub-halo hierarchy
• Reionization and Cosmic Dawn: theory and simulations
• A hybrid multi resolution scheme to efficiently model the structure of reionization on the largest scales
• Interpreting the HI 21-cm cosmology maps through Largest Cluster Statistics -- I: Impact of the synthetic SKA1-Low observations
• A Multi-messenger view of Cosmic Dawn: Conquering the Final Frontier
• Studying neutral hydrogen structures during the epoch of reionization using fractal dimensions
• Constraints on freeze-in dark matter from Lyman-$\alpha$ forest and 21-cm signal : single-field models
• Probing light relics through cosmic dawn
• Probing the Epoch of Reionization using synergies of line intensity mapping
• Deep learning approach for identification of HII regions during reionization in 21-cm observations -- III. image recovery
• The Linear Perturbation Theory of Reionization in Position-Space: Cosmological Radiative Transfer Along the Light-Cone
• Characterizing Beam Errors for Radio Interferometric Observations of Reionization
• Signature of the interaction between dark sectors in the reionization process
• 21-cm Constraints on Dark Matter Annihilation after an Early Matter-Dominated Era
• Dark-ages Reionization and Galaxy Formation Simulation - XV. Stellar evolution and feedback in dwarf galaxies at high redshift
• Topology of Reionisation times: concepts, measurements and comparisons to gaussian random field predictions
• Effects of chemically homogeneous evolution of the first stars on the 21-cm signal and reionization
• The correlation of high-redshift galaxies with the thermal Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect traces reionization
• Energy injection in pre-recombination era and EDGES detection
• The Impact of ionization Morphology and X-ray Heating on the Cosmological 21cm Skew Spectrum
• Prospects of FRBs and Large Scale 21 cm Power Spectra in Constraining the Epoch of Reionization
• Prospects of a statistical detection of the 21-cm forest and its potential to constrain the thermal state of the neutral IGM during reionization
• Probing isocurvature perturbations with 21-cm global signal in the light of HERA result
• Linear Polarization of the 21 cm Line from the Epoch of Reionization
• Skew spectrum and smoothed skewness of 21-cm signals from epoch of reionization
• The variance of dispersion measure of high-redshift transient objects as a probe of ionized bubble size during reionization
• Ionospheric effect on the synthetic Epoch of Reionization observations with the SKA1-Low
• Cross-correlation of the Polarizations of the 21-cm and Cosmic Microwave Backgrounds
• Probing the physics and history of cosmic reionization with the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect
• Dark-ages Reionization and Galaxy Formation Simulation - XIV. Gas accretion, cooling and star formation in dwarf galaxies at high redshift
• Field-level Reconstruction from Foreground-Contaminated 21-cm Maps
• Forecasting 21-cm power spectrum sensitivity to dark Matter-baryon scattering
• Improved Halo Model Calibrations for Mixed Dark Matter Models of Ultralight Axions
• Prospects for probing dark matter particles and primordial black holes with the Hongmeng mission using the 21 cm global spectrum at cosmic dawn
• Effects of Small-Scale Absorption Systems on Neutral Islands during the Late Epoch of Reionization
• Probing the global 21-cm background by velocity-induced dipole and quadrupole anisotropies
• Separating the memory of reionization from cosmology in the Ly$\alpha$ forest power spectrum at the post-reionization era
• The long-lasting effect of X-ray preheating in the post-reionization intergalactic medium
• An Optimized Ly$\alpha$ Forest Inversion Tool Based on a Quantitative Comparison of Existing Reconstruction Methods
• Exploring One-point Statistics in HERA Phase I Data: Effects of Foregrounds and Systematics on Measuring One-Point Statistics
• Reionization relics in the cross-correlation between the Ly$\alpha$ forest and 21 cm intensity mapping in the post-reionization era
• Reionization Parameter Inference from 3D Minkowski Functionals of the 21 cm Signals
• Predictions of the 21cm global signal in the JWST and ALMA era
• Global 21 cm signal: a promising probe of primordial features
• Narrowing the discovery space of the cosmological 21-cm signal using multi-wavelength constraints
• Reionisation time fields reconstruction from 21 cm signal maps
• Lyman-α polarization from cosmological ionization fronts: I. Radiative transfer simulations
• Lyman-$\alpha$ polarization from cosmological ionization fronts: II. Implications for intensity mapping
• Synthetic Observations with the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) -- development towards an end-to-end pipeline
• Reionizing islands with inhomogeneous recombinations
• Fisher matrix forecasts on the astrophysics of galaxies during the epoch of reionisation from the 21-cm power spectra
• Impact of Calibration and Position Errors on Astrophysical Parameters of the HI 21cm Signal
• Application of Physics-Informed Neural Networks in Removing Telescope Beam Effects
• Measuring the 21 cm Global Brightness Temperature Spectrum During the Dark Ages with the SCI-HI Experiment
• The signature of galaxy formation models in the power spectrum of the hydrogen 21cm line during reionization
• In Search of Global 21-cm Signal using Artificial Neural Network in light of ARCADE 2
• Signatures of inhomogeneous dark matter annihilation on 21-cm
• A Clustered Extragalactic Foreground Model for the EoR
• The Effects of Dark Matter Annihilation and Dark Matter-Baryon Velocity Offsets at Cosmic Dawn
• Accelerating HI density predictions during the Epoch of Reionization using a GPR-based emulator on N-body simulations
• Extracting the Epoch of Reionization Signal with 3D U-Net Neural Networks Using Data-driven Systematic Effect Model
• An Alcock-Paczynski Test on Reionization Bubbles for Cosmology
• ECHO21: a tool for modelling global 21-cm signal from dark ages to reionization
• Efficient Modelling of Lyman-α opacity fluctuations during late reionization epoch
• 21 cm Signal from the Thermal Evolution of Lyman-$\alpha$ during Cosmic Dawn
• oLIMpus: An Effective Model for Line Intensity Mapping Auto- and Cross- Power Spectra in Cosmic Dawn and Reionization
• Sensitivity toward dark matter annihilation imprints on 21-cm signal with SKA-Low: A convolutional neural network approach
• Astrophysical uncertainties challenge 21-cm forecasts: A primordial black hole case study
• REBELS-IFU: Spatially Resolved Ionizing Photon Production Efficiencies of 12 Bright Galaxies in the Epoch of Reionization
• Star Formation for Predictive Primordial Galaxy Formation
• 3D ScatterNet: Inference from 21 cm Light-cones
• Luminosity Bias (II): The Cosmic Web of the First Stars
• Particle production during inflation: constraints expected from redshifted 21 cm observations from the epoch of reionization
• Working towards an optimal sampling of the 21 cm signal parameter space
• Investigating Primordial Black Hole Accretion through Cosmic Optical Depth
• Radiative Transfer Simulations of Ly$\alpha$ Intensity Mapping During Cosmic Reionization Including Sources from Galaxies and the Intergalactic Medium
• 21 cm Cosmology Sensitivity to Small-Scale Structure: Warm vs Neutrino-Interacting Dark Matter
• Analytical modeling of the one-dimensional power spectrum of 21-cm forest based on a halo model method
• The impact of lunar topography on the 21-cm power spectrum for grid-based arrays : Insights for the Dark-ages EXplorer (DEX)
• Imprints of fermionic and bosonic mixed dark matter on the 21-cm signal at cosmic dawn
• The Neutral Islands during the Late Epoch of Reionization
• Robust Foregrounds Removal for 21-cm Experiments
• The haloes that reionized the Universe
• Impact of anisotropic photon emission from sources during the epoch of reionisation
• Radiative transfer of 21-cm line through ionised cavities in an expanding universe
• Simulated differential observations of the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect: Probing the Dark Ages and Epoch of Reionization
• Spectral-line performance of low-frequency radio telescope arrays: SKA-Low stations
• A local, topology-independent parameterization of quasar IGM damping wings
• Absorption in the 21 cm Hydrogen Line at $z>10$ as a Sensitive Tool for the Construction of a Cosmological Model on Small Scales
• First constraints on the local ionization topology in front of two quasars at z ~ 7.5
• Simulation based inference of the ionization history from the 2D 21 cm power spectrum
• Power spectrum multipoles and clustering wedges during the Epoch of Reionization
• Sample Variance Denoising in Cylindrical 21-cm Power Spectra
• Efficient neutral-IGM inference from noisy 21-cm forest spectra with latent-space U-Net encoding and XGBoost
• Large Language Models -- the Future of Fundamental Physics?
• Cosmological bounds on dark matter annihilation using dark ages 21-cm signal
• Direct reconstruction of the Reionization history from 21cm 2D Power Spectra
• Beyond the Power Spectrum: A New Framework for Non-Stationary Fields with Applications to Light-Cone Effects in Line Intensity Mapping
• On the accuracy of posterior recovery with neural network emulators
• Implications of the cosmological 21-cm absorption profile for high-redshift star formation and deep JWST surveys
• From Dark Matter Minihalos to Large-Scale Radiative Feedback: A Self-Consistent 3D Simulation of the First Stars and Galaxies using Neural Networks
• Classification of Radio Backgrounds at Cosmic Dawn and 21 cm Signal Confirmation Using Neural Networks
• Calibrating Bayesian Tension Statistics using Neural Ratio Estimation
• An Estimate of the Impact of Reionization on Supermassive Black Hole Growth
• It's Always Darkest Before the Cosmic Dawn: Early Results from Novel Tools and Telescopes for 21 cm Cosmology
• Squared-field cross-correlation between kinetic Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect and 21-cm intensity mapping
• Establishing a relationship between the cosmological 21 cm power spectrum and interferometric closure phases
• Probing power spectrum enhancement at small scales with the SKA
• Primordial black holes and the velocity acoustic oscillations features in 21 cm signals from the cosmic Dark Ages
• POLAR-II: modeling star formation history of galaxies on the 21-cm signal from Epoch of Reionization
• A joint measurement of galaxy luminosity functions and large-scale field densities during the Epoch of Reionization
• Foreground Subtraction with a Tensor-Based Oriented Singular Value Decomposition Method for HI Experiments
• A bubble size distribution model for the Epoch of Reionization
• Impact of 21-cm foreground mitigation strategies on reionization power spectrum constraints
• Exploring delaying and heating effects on the 21-cm signature of fuzzy dark matter
• Exploring the Model Dependence of MCMC-Based 21 cm Power Spectrum Parameter Constraints
• The 21-cm signal from the Cosmic Dawn: metallicity dependence of high mass X-ray binaries
• Mitigating gain calibration errors from EoR observations with SKA1-Low AA*
• Uncertainty-Aware Neural Networks for Fuzzy Dark Matter Model Selection from \texorpdfstring{$x_{\mathrm{HI}}$}{x_HI} Measurements
• A New Boundary Condition on Reionization
• Exploring the Early Universe with Deep Learning