From galactic bars to the Hubble tension: weighing up the astrophysical evidence for Milgromian gravity

Abstract

Astronomical observations reveal a major deficiency in our understanding of physics $-$ the detectable mass is insufficient to explain the observed motions in a huge variety of systems given our current understanding of gravity, Einstein's General theory of Relativity (GR). This missing gravity problem may indicate a breakdown of GR at low accelerations, as postulated by Milgromian dynamics (MOND). We review the MOND theory and its consequences, including in a cosmological context where we advocate a hybrid approach involving light sterile neutrinos to address MOND's cluster-scale issues. We then test the novel predictions of MOND using evidence from galaxies, galaxy groups, galaxy clusters, and the large-scale structure of the Universe. We also consider whether the standard cosmological paradigm ($\Lambda$CDM) can explain the observations and review several previously published highly significant falsifications of it. Our overall assessment considers both the extent to which the data agree with each theory and how much flexibility each has when accommodating the data, with the gold standard being a clear $apriori$ prediction not informed by the data in question. Our conclusion is that MOND is favoured by a wealth of data across a huge range of astrophysical scales, ranging from the kpc scales of galactic bars to the Gpc scale of the local supervoid and the Hubble tension, which is alleviated in MOND through enhanced cosmic variance. We also consider several future tests, mostly on scales much smaller than galaxies.

87 pages, 37 figures, 6 tables, 864 references. Invited review published in special issue of Symmetry, style matched to that of journal as closely as possible

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• The Baryonic Tully-Fisher Relation in the Local Group and the Equivalent Circular Velocity of Pressure Supported Dwarfs
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• Cold gas disks in main-sequence galaxies at cosmic noon: Low turbulence, flat rotation curves, and disk-halo degeneracy
• A simultaneous solution to the Hubble tension and observed bulk flow within 250 $h^{-1}$ Mpc
• Internal kinematics of GAIA DR3 wide binaries: anomalous behaviour in the low acceleration regime
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• Cotton gravity and 84 galaxy rotation curves
• The formation of early-type galaxies through monolithic collapse of gas clouds in Milgromian gravity
• Distinguishing Dark Matter, Modified Gravity, and Modified Inertia with the Inner and Outer Parts of Galactic Rotation Curves
• On the tension between the Radial Acceleration Relation and Solar System quadrupole in modified gravity MOND
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• Unraveling the interplay between SIDM and baryons in MW halos: defining where baryons dictate heat transfer
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• Cosmological Dynamics of Relativistic MOND
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• Is MOND necessarily nonlinear?
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• Measuring Mass of Gas in Central Galaxies using weak lensing and satellite kinematics in MOND
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• The stability of galaxies in an expanding universe obtained by Newtonian dynamics
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• Estimating the triaxiality of massive clusters from 2D observables in MillenniumTNG with machine learning
• A MOND model applied to the rotation curve of galaxies
• The MOND Depth Index and Dynamical Maturity Clock: Toward a Universal Classification of Galaxies and Star Clusters
• Possible uses of the binary icosahedral group in grand unified theories
• Testing MOND using the dynamics of nearby stellar streams