Star Clusters Across Cosmic Time

Abstract

Star clusters stand at the intersection of much of modern astrophysics: the interstellar medium, gravitational dynamics, stellar evolution, and cosmology. Here we review observations and theoretical models for the formation, evolution, and eventual disruption of star clusters. Current literature suggests a picture of this life cycle with several phases: (1) Clusters form in hierarchically-structured, accreting molecular clouds that convert gas into stars at a low rate per dynamical time until feedback disperses the gas. (2) The densest parts of the hierarchy resist gas removal long enough to reach high star formation efficiency, becoming dynamically-relaxed and well-mixed. These remain bound after gas removal. (3) In the first $\sim 100$ Myr after gas removal, clusters disperse moderately fast, through a combination of mass loss and tidal shocks by dense molecular structures in the star-forming environment. (4) After $\sim 100$ Myr, clusters lose mass via two-body relaxation and shocks by giant molecular clouds, processes that preferentially affect low-mass clusters and cause a turnover in the cluster mass function to appear on $\sim 1-10$ Gyr timescales. (5) Even after dispersal, some clusters remain coherent and thus detectable in chemical or action space for multiple galactic orbits. In the next decade a new generation of space- and AO-assisted ground-based telescopes will enable us to test and refine this picture.

To appear in Annual Reviews of Astronomy and Astrophysics; 76 pages, 15 figures; compared to previous version, this has some typo fixes, minor wording changes, and one new reference

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• Fraction of Stars in Clusters for the LEGUS Dwarf Galaxies
• Multi-Scale Stellar Associations across the Star Formation Hierarchy in PHANGS-HST Nearby Galaxies: Methodology and Properties
• The Dependence of the Hierarchical Distribution of Star Clusters on Galactic Environment
• Evolution of circumstellar discs in young star-forming regions
• The observable properties of cool winds from galaxies, AGN, and star clusters -- II. 3D models for the multiphase wind of M82
• Distribution and kinematics of 26Al in the Galactic disc
• Enlightening the dynamical evolution of Galactic open clusters: an approach using Gaia DR3 and analytical descriptions
• Ongoing hierarchical massive cluster assembly: the LISCA II structure in the Perseus complex
• On the initial mass-radius relation of stellar clusters
• Topological packing statistics distinguish living and non-living matter
• Chemical modeling of Orion Nebula Cluster disks: evidence for massive, compact gas disks with ISM-like gas-to-dust ratios
• SIEGE III: The formation of dense stellar clusters in sub-parsec resolution cosmological simulations with individual star feedback
• Disentangled Representation Learning for Astronomical Chemical Tagging
• A Gaia astrometric view of the open clusters Pleiades, Praesepe and Blanco 1
• Stellar Population Astrophysics (SPA) with the TNG: Stock 2, a little-studied open cluster with an eMSTO
• Dust-free starburst galaxies at redshifts $z>10$
• The young massive star cluster Westerlund 2 observed with MUSE. III. A cluster in motion -- the complex internal dynamics
• Decoding the Morphological Evolution of Open Clusters
• An ALMA Glimpse of Dense Molecular Filaments Associated with High-mass Protostellar Systems in the Large Magellanic Cloud
• A Panchromatic Study of Massive Stars in the Extremely Metal-Poor Local Group Dwarf Galaxy Leo A
• Bursting Bubbles: Clustered Supernova Feedback in Local and High-redshift Galaxies
• Second generation star formation in globular clusters of different masses
• Molecular gas and star formation in nearby starburst galaxy mergers
• Far and extreme UV radiation feedback in molecular clouds and its influence on the mass and size of star clusters
• Denoising Diffusion Probabilistic Models to Predict the Density of Molecular Clouds
• Tidal disruption of star clusters in galaxy formation simulations
• Synthetic photometry of OB star clusters with stochastically sampled IMFs: analysis of models and HST observations
• Multiple stellar population mass loss in massive Galactic globular clusters
• Formation of proto-globular cluster candidates in cosmological simulations of dwarf galaxies at $z>4$
• Merger-induced star formation in low-metallicity dwarf galaxy NGC 4809/4810
• Dynamical friction in globular cluster-rich ultra-diffuse galaxies: the case of NGC5846-UDG1
• Running with the Bulls: The frequency of star-disc encounters in the Taurus star forming region
• On the suppression of giant planet formation around low-mass stars in clustered environments
• The longevity of the oldest open clusters: Structural parameters of NGC 188, NGC 2420, NGC 2425, NGC 2682, NGC 6791, NGC 6819
• The contribution of globular clusters to cosmic reionization
• Accretion of sub-stellar companions as the origin of chemical abundance inhomogeneities in globular clusters
• Mass and wind luminosity of young Galactic open clusters in Gaia DR2
• Supersonic turbulence in Giant HII Regions: clues from 30 Doradus
• Formation and evolution of binary black holes in $N$-body simulations of star clusters with up to two million stars
• The Young Stellar Population of the metal-poor galaxy NGC 6822
• Pearls on a String: Numerous Stellar Clusters Strung along the Same Orbit
• Determining Star Formation Thresholds from Observations
• Clusters, Clouds, and Correlations: Relating Young Clusters to Giant Molecular Clouds in M33 and M31
• Towards a multi-tracer timeline of star formation in the LMC -- II. The formation and destruction of molecular clouds
• Global properties, fractality, and mass segregation in single, paired, and grouped open clusters
• Factories of CO-dark gas: molecular clouds with limited star formation efficiencies by FUV feedback
• Linking stellar populations to HII regions across nearby galaxies. II. Infrared Reprocessed and UV Direct Radiation Pressure in HII Regions
• Testing the chemical homogeneity of chemically tagged dissolved birth clusters
• X-ray emission from star cluster winds in starburst galaxies
• On the Reionization-Era Globular Cluster in Low-Mass Galaxy Eridanus II
• Simulating Globular Clusters in Dark Matter Sub-Halos
• PHANGS-ALMA: Arcsecond CO(2-1) Imaging of Nearby Star-Forming Galaxies
• Testing the star formation scaling relations in the clumps of the North American and Pelican cloud complexes
• Quantifying kinematic substructure in star-forming regions with statistical tests of spatial autocorrelation
• Merger rate density of stellar-mass binary black holes from young massive clusters, open clusters, and isolated binaries: comparisons with LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA results
• Study of star clusters in the M83 galaxy with a convolutional neural network
• On the mass segregation of cores and stars
• The Timescales of Star Cluster Emergence: The Case of NGC 4449
• Symmetry breaking in merging binary black holes from young massive clusters and isolated binaries
• GOALS-JWST: NIRCam and MIRI Imaging of the Circumnuclear Starburst Ring in NGC 7469
• The sub-critical illusion: synthetic Zeeman effect observations from galactic zoom-in simulations
• The influence of globular cluster evolution on the specific frequency in dwarf galaxies
• A census of the near-by Pisces-Eridanus stellar stream -- Commonalities with and disparities from the Pleiades
• Active Galactic Nucleus Feedback in an Elliptical Galaxy with the Most Updated AGN Physics: Parameter Explorations
• Carina's Pillars of Destruction: the view from ALMA
• Arp 220: A Post-Starburst Galaxy With Little Star Formation Outside of It's Nuclear Disks
• Pre-supernova feedback mechanisms drive the destruction of molecular clouds in nearby star-forming disc galaxies
• Spatial and Kinematic Clustering of Stars in the Galactic Disk
• Core-collapse supernova inside the core of a young massive star cluster: 3D MHD simulations
• The filamentary structures in the CO emission toward the Milky Way disk
• APEX-SEPIA660 Early Science: Gas at densities above $10^7$ cm${}^{-3}$ towards OMC-1
• A Comparison of Star-Forming Clumps and Tidal Tails in Local Mergers and High Redshift Galaxies
• A spectroscopically confirmed Gaia-selected sample of 318 new young stars within $\sim$200 pc
• Towards Studying Hierarchical Assembly in Real Time: A Milky Way Progenitor Galaxy at z = 2.36 under the Microscope
• Wide binaries from the H3 survey: the thick disk and halo have similar wide binary fractions
• Spectroscopic Confirmation of a Population of Isolated, Intermediate-Mass YSOs
• Gravity or turbulence V: Star forming regions undergoing violent relaxation
• Comparing the Locations of Supernovae to CO (2-1) Emission in their Host Galaxies
• SIRIUS Project. V. Formation of off-center ionized bubbles associated with Orion Nebula Cluster
• Galactic Population Synthesis of Radioactive Nucleosynthesis Ejecta
• Ionising Feedback Effects on Star Formation in Globular Clusters with Multiple Stellar Populations
• MOCCA-SURVEY Database -- I. Tidal disruption events of white dwarfs in globular clusters and young massive clusters
• Dust Buried Compact Sources in the Dwarf Galaxy NGC 4449
• On the Origin of the High Star-Formation Efficiency in Massive Galaxies at Cosmic Dawn
• X-ray emission from Westerlund 2 detected by SRG/ART-XC and Chandra: search for radiation of TeV leptons
• Constraining the LyC escape fraction from LEGUS star clusters with SIGNALS HII region observations: A pilot study of NGC 628
• Reconstructing three-dimensional densities from two-dimensional observations of molecular gas
• Collision-induced mass loss and mass gain on an extremely massive star. An analytical approach and a static proto-globular cluster test-case
• Exploring Galactic open clusters with Gaia I. An examination in the first kiloparsec
• A GALAH View of the Chemical Homogeneity and Ages of Stellar Strings Identified in Gaia
• The GALAH Survey: Dependence of elemental abundances on age and metallicity for stars in the Galactic disc
• Ages and Masses of Star Clusters in M33: a Multi-wavelength Study
• A catalogue of open cluster radii determined from Gaia proper motions
• Signature of a massive rotating metal-poor star imprinted in the Phoenix stellar stream
• Mergers all the way down: stellar collisions and kinematics of a dense hierarchically forming massive star cluster in a dwarf starburst
• Feedback in Forming Star Clusters: The Mass-Radius Relation and Mass Function of Molecular Clumps in the Large Magellanic Cloud
• The z = 9.625 Cosmic Gems Galaxy was a "Compact Blue Monster" Propelled by Massive Star Clusters
• The physics governing the upper truncation mass of the globular cluster mass function
• The formation of globular clusters with top-heavy initial mass functions
• Star Cluster Formation and Evolution in M101: An Investigation with the Legacy Extragalactic UV Survey
• The impact of HII regions on Giant Molecular Cloud properties in nearby galaxies sampled by PHANGS ALMA and MUSE
• The GALAH Survey: Stellar parameters and abundances for 800,000 Gaia RVS spectra using GALAH DR4 and The Cannon
• Unbound stars hold the key to young star cluster history
• LISC Catalog of Open Clusters.III. 83 Newly found Galactic disk open clusters using Gaia EDR3
• Cluster aggregates surrounding Pismis 5 in the Vela Molecular Ridge
• The THESAN-ZOOM project: Star-formation efficiencies in high-redshift galaxies
• Gravitationally Bound Gas Determines Star Formation in the Galaxy
• The completeness of the open cluster census towards the Galactic anticentre
• LAMOST medium-resolution observations of the Pleiades
• A misaligned protostellar disk fed by gas streamers in a barred spiral-like massive dense core
• A sensitive, high-resolution, wide-field IRAM NOEMA CO(1-0) survey of the very nearby spiral galaxy IC 342
• Globular Cluster Counts around 700 Nearby Galaxies
• On the limitations of H alpha luminosity as a star formation tracer in spatially resolved observations
• IRAS 09002-4732: A Laboratory for the Formation of Rich Stellar Clusters
• Finding the dispersing siblings of young open clusters. Dynamical traceback simulations using Gaia DR3
• Evolution of star clusters with initial bulk rotation via N-body simulations
• Mapping the Distant and Metal-Poor Milky Way with SDSS-V
• The Initial Properties of Young Star Clusters in M83
• Unveiling the formation of NGC 2915 with MUSE: A counter-rotating stellar disk embedded in a disordered gaseous environment
• A two-phase model of galaxy formation: III. The formation of globular clusters
• The internal line-of-sight kinematics of NGC 346: the rotation of the core region
• Confirming the Tidal Tails of the Young Open Cluster Blanco 1 with TESS Rotation Periods
• Great Balls of FIRE IV. The contribution of massive star clusters to the astrophysical population of merging binary black holes
• Cluster membership analysis with supervised learning and $N$-body simulations
• Disc-halo gas outflows driven by stellar clusters as seen in multiwavelength tracers
• Multiple gas phases in supernova remnant IC 443: mapping shocked H${}_2$ with VLT/KMOS
• The GALAH survey: Improving chemical abundances using star clusters
• Exploration of morphological coherence in open clusters with a "core-shell'' structure
• Bimodal Star Formation in Simulations of Strongly Magnetized Giant Molecular Clouds
• Mass Distribution of Binary Black Hole Mergers from Young and Old Dense Star Clusters
• Sustaining Star Formation in the Galactic Star Cluster M 36?
• The formation and disruption of globular cluster populations in simulations of present-day $L^{\ast }$ galaxies with controlled assembly histories
• Unveiling the initial conditions of open star cluster formation
• Evolution of magnetized hub-filament systems: Comparing the observed properties of W3(OH), W3 Main, and S 106
• Bayesian ages of local young stellar associations I. Through the expansion rate method
• Fundamental limits to orbit reconstruction due to non-conservation of stellar actions in a Milky Way-like simulation
• Gravity or turbulence? VII. The Schmidt-Kennicutt law, the star formation efficiency, and the mass density of clusters from gravitational collapse rather than turbulent support
• Fractal dimension of star clusters
• A baseline on the relation between chemical patterns and birth stellar cluster
• PAH Marks the Spot: Digging for Buried Clusters in Nearby Star-forming Galaxies
• Two-point correlation function studies for the Milky Way: discovery of spatial clustering from disk excitations and substructure
• Touching the Stars: Using High-Resolution 3D Printing to Visualize Stellar Nurseries
• Shocks and Molecules in Diffuse Interstellar Cloud Pairs
• Lost Sisters Found: TESS and Gaia Reveal a Dissolving Pleiades Complex
• Low-density star cluster formation: discovery of a young faint fuzzy on the outskirts of the low-mass spiral galaxy NGC 247
• Search strategies for supermassive stars in young clusters and application to nearby galaxies
• Star Clusters in the Galactic tidal field, from birth to dissolution
• Quantifying stochasticity-driven uncertainties in H II region metallicities
• Spatial segregation of massive clusters in dwarf galaxies
• Synthetic stellar spectra to study multiple populations in globular clusters: an extended grid and the effects on the integrated light
• The Impact of $f(\mathcal{G},T)$ Gravity on the Evolution of Cavity in the Cluster of Stars
• The Hierarchical Dynamical State of Molecular Gas from 3 to 300 pc in NGC 253
• Clump formation in ram-pressure stripped galaxies: evidence from mass function
• Dynamical evolution of the open clusters with different star formation efficiencies and orbital parameters
• The SUNBIRD survey: the K-band luminosity functions of young massive clusters in intensely star-forming galaxies
• Gravitational wave inference of star cluster properties from intermediate-mass black hole mergers
• Cosmological Constant from Boundary Condition and Its Implications beyond the Standard Model
• Supernova remnants in super bubbles as cosmic ray accelerators
• Wind of Change: Faraday Rotation in a Simulated Large Magellanic Cloud
• The Supersonic Project: SIGOs, a Proposed Progenitor to Globular Clusters, and their Connections to Gravitational Wave Anisotropies
• Stellar masses and mass ratios for Gaia open cluster members
• Minimum gas mass accreted by spinning intermediate-mass black holes in stellar clusters
• Introducing a new multi-particle collision method for the evolution of dense stellar systems II. Core collapse
• Toward the fabric of the Milky Way I. The density of disk streams from a local $250^3$ pc${}^3$ volume
• Explanations for the two-component spectral energy distributions of gravitationally lensed stars at high redshifts
• The Phoenix stellar stream rose from the ashes of an ancient star cluster
• Cosmic-Ray Bath in a Past Supernova Gives Birth to Earth-Like Planets
• Collision of Two Stellar Associations in the Nearby Gum Nebula
• Single-event likelihood of star cluster properties with LIGO-Virgo-Kagra binary black hole observations
• On the Encounter Rate of Open Star Clusters
• Catalog of Integrated-Light Star Cluster Light Curves in TESS
• Studying the ISM at $\sim$10 pc scale in NGC 7793 with MUSE -- II. Constraints on the oxygen abundance and ionising radiation escape
• A machine learning framework to generate star cluster realisations
• Clusters, Clumps, Dust, & Gas (CCDG) in NGC1614: Bench-marking Cluster Demographics in Extreme Systems
• Deriving physical parameters of unresolved star clusters. VIII. Limits of aperture photometry for star cluster studies
• Hubble Space Telescope Observations of Tadpole Galaxies Kiso 3867, SBS0, SBS1, and UM461
• Unveiling the nature of the unidentified gamma-ray sources 4FGL J1908.6+0915e, HESS J1907+089/HOTS J1907+091, and 3HWC J1907+085 in the sky region of the magnetar SGR 1900+14
• When did the initial mass function become bottom-heavy?
• Nuclear astrophysics
• Interstellar Medium in Extremely High Star-Formation Regions: A Prospect of Observations on the Millimetron Space Observatory
• FROST-CLUSTERS -- III. Metallicity-dependent intermediate mass black hole formation by runaway collisions in dense star clusters
• A new moving group in the Local Arm
• The Star Formation Factory revisited I. The impact of metallicity on collapsing star-forming clouds
• Dense clumps survive in the vicinity of R136 in 30 Doradus
• Investigating the young stellar populations and hierarchies in nearby galaxies with the UVIT. II. Presenting the properties of ~25,000 UV-detected star-forming clumps
• Study of the open cluster Alessi-Teutsch 9 (ASCC 10) using multiband photometry and Gaia EDR3
• Effect of dust rotational disruption by radiative torques on radiation pressure feedback from massive protostars
• Constraining the original composition of the gas forming first-generation stars in globular clusters
• Use of Redshifts as Evidence of Dark Energy
• Research on the Interstellar Medium and Star Formation in the Galaxy: An Indian Perspective
• Kinematics and Feedback in H II regions in the Dwarf Starburst Galaxy IC 10
• Can superbubbles accelerate ultra-high energy protons?
• Why most molecular clouds are gravitationally dominated
• KAgoshima Galactic Object survey with Nobeyama 45-metre telescope by Mapping in Ammonia lines (KAGONMA): Star formation feedback on dense molecular gas in the W33 complex
• The Hierarchical Structure of the Open Cluster NGC 752
• Deriving physical parameters of unresolved star clusters. IX. Sky background effects in the aperture photometry
• Transit Hunt for Young and Maturing Exoplanets (THYME) VIII: a Pleiades-age association harboring two transiting planetary systems from Kepler
• Galactic astronomy and small telescopes
• Stellar Feedback Effects on the Mass Distribution of Clouds and Cloud Complexes
• Galaxy Activity, Torus and Outflow Survey (GATOS) X: Molecular gas clumpiness under the influence of AGN
• Evolution of action-space coherence in a Milky Way-like simulation
• Influence of protostellar jets and HII regions on the formation and evolution of stellar clusters
• On the scale-height of the molecular gas disc in Milky Way-like galaxies
• Imladris: a detailed and flexible model for galaxy simulations with individual stars
• Stellar associations powering HII regions $\unicode{x2013}$ II. Escape fraction of ionizing photons
• The morphological stability of open clusters: a new 2D perspective
• Kinematic Evidence for Open Cluster Origins of Galactic Binary Neutron Stars
• Mass and Spin Growth of Very Massive Stars in Star Clusters Potentially Associated with Little Red Dots
• Transferring Data from a Voronoi Mesh to an Adaptive Cartesian Grid in Pursuit of Self-consistent Top-down Star Formation