Introducing EMP-Pathfinder: modelling the simultaneous formation and evolution of stellar clusters in their host galaxies

Abstract

The formation and evolution of stellar clusters is intimately linked to that of their host galaxies. To study this connection, we present the EMP-Pathfinder suite of cosmological zoom-in Milky Way-mass simulations. These simulations contain a sub-grid description for stellar cluster formation and evolution, allowing us to study the simultaneous formation and evolution of stellar clusters alongside their host galaxies across cosmic time. As a key ingredient in these simulations, we include the physics of the multi-phase nature of the interstellar medium (ISM), which enables studies of how the presence of a cold, dense ISM affects cluster formation and evolution. We consider two different star formation prescriptions: a constant star formation efficiency per free-fall time, as well as an environmentally-dependent, turbulence-based prescription. We identify two key results drawn from these simulations. Firstly, we find that tidal shock-driven disruption caused by the graininess of the cold ISM produces old ($\tau >10$Gyr) stellar cluster populations with properties that are in excellent agreement with the observed populations in the Milky Way and M31. Importantly, the addition of the cold ISM addresses the areas of disagreement found in previous simulations that lacked the cold gas phase. Secondly, the formation of stellar clusters is extremely sensitive to the baryonic physics that govern the properties of the cold, dense gas reservoir in the galaxy. This implies that the demographics of stellar cluster populations represent an important diagnostic tool for constraining baryonic physics models in upcoming galaxy formation simulations that also include a description of the cold ISM.

arXiv comment30 pages + appendices, 12 figures. MNRAS submitted, comments and suggestions welcome!

References in corpus (201)

• Array Programming with NumPy
• A Universal Density Profile from Hierarchical Clustering
• The chemical composition of the Sun
• Galactic Stellar and Substellar Initial Mass Function
• Planck 2013 results. XVI. Cosmological parameters
• The cosmological simulation code GADGET-2
• The Global Schmidt Law in Star Forming Galaxies
• Starburst99: Synthesis Models for Galaxies with Active Star Formation
• Cosmic Star Formation History
• The EAGLE project: Simulating the evolution and assembly of galaxies and their environments
• Embedded Clusters in Molecular Clouds
• Populating a cluster of galaxies - I. Results at z=0
• Evolutionary tracks and isochrones for low- and intermediate-mass stars: from 0.15 to 7 M_sun, and from Z=0.0004 to 0.03
• E pur si muove: Galiliean-invariant cosmological hydrodynamical simulations on a moving mesh
• Modeling feedback from stars and black holes in galaxy mergers
• The Star Formation Law in Nearby Galaxies on Sub-Kpc Scales
• Grids of stellar models with rotation - I. Models from 0.8 to 120 Msun at solar metallicity (Z = 0.014)
• First results from the IllustrisTNG simulations: the stellar mass content of groups and clusters of galaxies
• The Galaxy in Context: Structural, Kinematic and Integrated Properties
• First results from the IllustrisTNG simulations: the galaxy color bimodality
• The EAGLE simulations of galaxy formation: calibration of subgrid physics and model variations
• Galactic star formation and accretion histories from matching galaxies to dark matter haloes
• UniverseMachine: The Correlation between Galaxy Growth and Dark Matter Halo Assembly from z=0-10
• Radiative transfer in a clumpy universe: IV. New synthesis models of the cosmic UV/X-ray background
• The size distribution of galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey
• Young massive star clusters
• FIRE-2 Simulations: Physics versus Numerics in Galaxy Formation
• Core-Collapse Supernovae from 9 to 120 Solar Masses Based on Neutrino-powered Explosions
• Substructures in hydrodynamical cluster simulations
• A General Theory of Turbulence-Regulated Star Formation, From Spirals to ULIRGs
• The Inner Structure of LambdaCDM Halos I: A Numerical Convergence Study
• PHIBSS: molecular gas content and scaling relations in z~1-3 normal star forming galaxies
• Resolving Cosmic Structure Formation with the Millennium-II Simulation
• The Star Formation Rate of Turbulent Magnetized Clouds: Comparing Theory, Simulations, and Observations
• Dynamical evolution of star clusters in tidal fields
• A New Calculation of the Ionizing Background Spectrum and the Effects of HeII Reionization
• Multiple Stellar Populations in Globular Clusters
• Star Clusters Across Cosmic Time
• The Luminosity Function of Young Star Clusters In "The Antennae" Galaxies (NGC 4038/4039)
• PHIBSS: Unified Scaling Relations of Gas Depletion Time and Molecular Gas Fractions
• Three-dimensional delayed-detonation models with nucleosynthesis for Type Ia supernovae
• Modelling Primordial Gas in Numerical Cosmology
• Forming Realistic Late-Type Spirals in a LCDM Universe: The Eris Simulation
• The Density Probability Distribution in Compressible Isothermal Turbulence: Solenoidal versus Compressive Forcing
• Improved Estimates of the Milky Way's Stellar Mass and Star Formation Rate from Hierarchical Bayesian Meta-Analysis
• The Ages of 55 Globular Clusters as Determined Using an Improved delta V_TO^HB Method Along with Color-Magnitude Diagram Constraints, and Their Implications for Broader Issues
• Towards a complete accounting of energy and momentum from stellar feedback in galaxy formation simulations
• The Star Formation Rate of Supersonic MHD Turbulence
• The ACS Survey of Galactic Globular Clusters. IX. Horizontal Branch Morphology and the Second Parameter Phenomenon
• The Evolution of the Star-forming Interstellar Medium across Cosmic Time
• The Arepo public code release
• EMERGE - An empirical model for the formation of galaxies since $z\sim 10$
• On the fraction of star formation occurring in bound stellar clusters
• A comprehensive set of simulations studying the influence of gas expulsion on star cluster evolution
• Dynamical Evolution of the Mass Function of Globular Star Clusters
• Streams, substructures and the early history of the Milky Way
• The Mass Function of Young Star Clusters in the "Antennae" Galaxies
• Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA): The galaxy stellar mass function at z < 0.06
• The formation and assembly history of the Milky Way revealed by its globular cluster population
• The ACS Virgo Cluster Survey XV. The Formation Efficiencies of Globular Clusters in Early-Type Galaxies: The Effects of Mass and Environment
• The Milky Way total mass profile as inferred from Gaia DR2
• Grackle: a Chemistry and Cooling Library for Astrophysics
• The initial mass function : from Salpeter 1955 to 2005
• An energy-conserving formalism for adaptive gravitational force softening in SPH and N-body codes
• The ACS Virgo Cluster Survey. XII. The Luminosity Function of Globular Clusters in Early Type Galaxies
• Formation of globular clusters in hierarchical cosmology
• Stellar yields from metal-rich asymptotic giant branch models
• Star Formation from Galaxies to Globules
• An analytical description of the disruption of star clusters in tidal fields with an application to Galactic open clusters
• The Mass Distribution and Lifetime of Prestellar Cores in Perseus, Serpens, and Ophiuchus
• Globular clusters as the relics of regular star formation in 'normal' high-redshift galaxies
• Stellar mass -- halo mass relation and star formation efficiency in high-mass halos
• Type-Ia supernova rates and the progenitor problem, a review
• A Comparison of Methods for Determining the Molecular Content of Model Galaxies
• Molecular Hydrogen and Global Star Formation Relations in Galaxies
• The lifecycle of molecular clouds in nearby star-forming disc galaxies
• The AGORA High-Resolution Galaxy Simulations Comparison Project
• Star cluster disruption by giant molecular clouds
• Analytical star formation rate from gravoturbulent fragmentation
• Kraken reveals itself -- the merger history of the Milky Way reconstructed with the E-MOSAICS simulations
• The accretion history of dark matter halos III: A physical model for the concentration-mass relation
• Cosmological Hydrodynamics with Multi-Species Chemistry and Nonequilibrium Ionization and Cooling
• The E-MOSAICS Project: simulating the formation and co-evolution of galaxies and their star cluster populations
• Cloud-Scale Molecular Gas Properties in 15 Nearby Galaxies
• Legacy ExtraGalactic UV Survey (LEGUS) with The Hubble Space Telescope. I. Survey Description
• The mass function of young star clusters in spiral galaxies
• On the Star Formation Rate - Brightest Cluster Relation: Estimating the peak SFR in post-merger galaxies
• Tidal Shocking by Extended Mass Distributions
• Tidal Effects in Clusters of Galaxies
• The Role of Pressure in GMC Formation
• Accreted versus In Situ Milky Way Globular Clusters
• SLUG - Stochastically Lighting Up Galaxies I: Methods and Validating Tests
• The Formation and Evolution of Young Globular Clusters in NGC 3256
• The Luminosity Profile and Structural Parameters of the Andromeda Galaxy
• Supernova Driving. I. The Origin of Molecular Cloud Turbulence
• Super and Massive AGB Stars: II - Nucleosynthesis and Yields - Z=0.02, 0.008 and 0.004
• Reconstructing the star formation history of the Milky Way disc(s) from chemical abundances
• A chronicle of galaxy mass assembly in the EAGLE simulation
• Globular clusters in the outer Galactic halo: new HST/ACS imaging of 6 globular clusters and the Galactic globular cluster age-metallicity relation
• N-body Dark Matter Haloes with simple Hierarchical Histories
• The life cycle of star cluster in a tidal field
• Probing the role of the galactic environment in the formation of stellar clusters; using M83 as a test bench
• Disruption time scales of star clusters in different galaxies
• Statistics of N-body Simulations I. Equal Masess Before Core Collapse
• Globular cluster formation in the context of galaxy formation and evolution
• The dynamical state of stellar structure in star-forming regions
• The Streams of the Gaping Abyss: A population of entangled stellar streams surrounding the Inner Galaxy
• Modeling the formation and evolution of star cluster populations in galaxy simulations
• Charting the Galactic acceleration field I. A search for stellar streams with Gaia DR2 and EDR3 with follow-up from ESPaDOnS and UVES
• Legacy ExtraGalactic UV Survey with The Hubble Space Telescope. Stellar cluster catalogues and first insights into cluster formation and evolution in NGC 628
• The EAGLE simulations: atomic hydrogen associated with galaxies
• SLUG -- Stochastically Lighting Up Galaxies. III: A Suite of Tools for Simulated Photometry, Spectroscopy, and Bayesian Inference with Stochastic Stellar Populations
• Giant Molecular Cloud Catalogues for PHANGS-ALMA: Methods and Initial Results
• ZFOURGE/CANDELS: On the Evolution of M* Galaxy Progenitors from z=3 to 0.5
• The AGORA High-Resolution Galaxy Simulations Comparison Project. II: Isolated Disk Test
• Star cluster formation in cosmological simulations. I. Properties of young clusters
• The E-MOSAICS project: tracing galaxy formation and assembly with the age-metallicity distribution of globular clusters
• Globular Cluster Formation and Evolution in the Context of Cosmological Galaxy Assembly: Open Questions
• Clusters in the solar neighbourhood: how are they destroyed?
• Star clusters near and far; tracing star formation across cosmic time
• No missing photons for reionization: moderate ionizing photon escape fractions from the FIRE-2 simulations
• The Star Formation Efficiency per Free Fall Time in Nearby Galaxies
• Extending the Globular Cluster System-Halo Mass Relation to the Lowest Galaxy Masses
• The PHANGS-HST Survey: Physics at High Angular resolution in Nearby GalaxieS with the Hubble Space Telescope
• The Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury XI: The Spatially-Resolved Recent Star Formation History of M31
• The Star Formation Rate in the Gravoturbulent Interstellar Medium
• Evolution of star clusters in arbitrary tidal fields
• Giant clumps in the FIRE simulations: a case study of a massive high-redshift galaxy
• A new way of setting the phases for cosmological multi-scale Gaussian initial conditions
• Second-order Lagrangian perturbation theory initial conditions for resimulations
• Is molecular gas necessary for star formation?
• SLUG - Stochastically Lighting Up Galaxies. II: Quantifying the Effects of Stochasticity on Star Formation Rate Indicators
• The GRIFFIN project -- Formation of star clusters with individual massive stars in a simulated dwarf galaxy starburst
• Dynamical Evolution of Globular Clusters in Hierarchical Cosmology
• Formation versus destruction: the evolution of the star cluster population in galaxy mergers
• Heart of Darkness: the influence of galactic dynamics on quenching star formation in galaxy spheroids
• TreePM: A code for Cosmological N-Body Simulations
• Self-consistent proto-globular cluster formation in cosmological simulations of high-redshift galaxies
• A unified model for the maximum mass-scales of molecular clouds, stellar clusters, and high-redshift clumps
• Adiabatic Invariants in Stellar Dynamics: II. Gravitational shocking
• Globular Cluster Systems in Brightest Cluster Galaxies: A Near-Universal Luminosity Function?
• Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury XVI. Star Cluster Formation Efficiency and the Clustered Fraction of Young Stars
• Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury XVIII. The High-mass Truncation of the Star Cluster Mass Function
• Formation of Globular Cluster Candidates in Merging Proto-galaxies at High Redshift: A View from the FIRE Cosmological Simulations
• Radii of Young Star Clusters in Nearby Galaxies
• Adiabatic Invariants in Stellar Dynamics: I. Basic concepts
• Line Overlap and Self-Shielding of Molecular Hydrogen in Galaxies
• Orbital Clustering Identifies the Origins of Galactic Stellar Streams
• Modeling the dynamical evolution of the M87 globular cluster system
• On the Disruption of Star Clusters in a Hierarchical Interstellar Medium
• Star Cluster Formation in Cosmological Simulations. II. Effects of Star Formation Efficiency and Stellar Feedback
• The formation of low metallicity globular clusters in dwarf galaxy mergers
• Star cluster formation in the most extreme environments: Insights from the HiPEEC survey
• The integrated properties of the molecular clouds from the JCMT CO(3-2) High Resolution Survey
• Constraining stellar population models - I. Age, metallicity, and abundance pattern compilation for Galactic globular clusters
• Star cluster formation in cosmological simulations. III. Dynamical and chemical evolution
• Formation histories of stars, clusters and globular clusters in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• The young star cluster population of M51 with LEGUS - II. Testing environmental dependencies
• The Globular Cluster Mass Function as a Remnant of Violent Birth
• Cosmological Galaxy Evolution with Superbubble Feedback I: Realistic Galaxies with Moderate Feedback
• The Fraction of Stars That Form in Clusters in Different Galaxies
• If it does not kill them, it makes them stronger: collisional evolution of star clusters with tidal shocks
• The Link Between the Formation Rates of Clusters and Stars in Galaxies
• Adiabatic Invariants in Stellar Dynamics: III. Application to Globular Cluster Evolution
• An old, metal-poor globular cluster in Sextans A and the metallicity floor of globular cluster systems
• A simple method to convert sink particles into stars
• A prescription and fast code for the long-term evolution of star clusters
• Star Clusters in M31: VII. Global Kinematics and Metallicity Subpopulations of the Globular Clusters
• Forming early-type galaxies without AGN feedback: a combination of merger-driven outflows and inefficient star formation
• Formation and evolution of young massive clusters in galaxy mergers: the SMUGGLE view
• The SLUGGS Survey: Wide Field Imaging of the Globular Cluster System of NGC 4278
• Evolution of giant molecular clouds across cosmic time
• The correlation between the sizes of globular cluster systems and their host dark matter haloes
• Fossil stellar streams and their globular cluster populations in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• The origin of the 'blue tilt' of globular cluster populations in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• The minimum metallicity of globular clusters and its physical origin -- implications for the galaxy mass-metallicity relation and observations of proto-globular clusters at high redshift
• Dynamical cluster disruption and its implications for multiple population models in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• Predicting accreted satellite galaxy masses and accretion redshifts based on globular cluster orbits in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• The challenge of simulating the star cluster population of dwarf galaxies with resolved interstellar medium
• Young star cluster populations in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• A prescription and fast code for the long-term evolution of star clusters - III. Unequal masses and stellar evolution
• Where did the globular clusters of the Milky Way form? Insights from the E-MOSAICS simulations
• Clearing the hurdle: The mass of globular cluster systems as a function of host galaxy mass
• The chemical composition of globular clusters in the Local Group
• Globular clusters as tracers of the dark matter halo: insights from the E-MOSAICS simulations
• The effects of AGN feedback on the structural and dynamical properties of Milky Way-mass galaxies in cosmological simulations
• The [α/Fe]-[Fe/H] relation in the E-MOSAICS simulations: its connection to the birth place of globular clusters and the fraction of globular cluster field stars in the bulge
• The kinematics of globular cluster populations in the E-MOSAICS simulations and their implications for the assembly history of the Milky Way
• The mass fraction of halo stars contributed by the disruption of globular clusters in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• Uncertainties in supernova input rates drive qualitative differences in simulations of galaxy evolution
• Dynamical self-friction: how mass loss slows you down
• A model for the minimum mass of bound stellar clusters and its dependence on the galactic environment
• A tight relation between the age distributions of stellar clusters and the properties of the interstellar medium in the host galaxy
• Discovery of Extended Tidal Tails around the Globular Cluster Palomar 13
• The Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury: Triangulum Extended Region (PHATTER). III. The Mass Function of Young Star Clusters in M33
• A systematic analysis of star cluster disruption by tidal shocks -- I. Controlled N-body simulations and a new theoretical model
• On compressive radial tidal forces
• Highly turbulent gas on GMC-scales in NGC 3256, the nearest luminous infrared galaxy
• On the initial mass-radius relation of stellar clusters
• A prescription and fast code for the long-term evolution of star clusters - II. Unbalanced and core evolution
• Testing Feedback from Star Clusters in Simulations of the Milky Way Formation

Cited by in corpus (26)

• Star formation at the smallest scales; A JWST study of the clump populations in SMACS0723
• Formation of globular clusters in dwarf galaxies of the Local Group
• Anatomy of a z=6 Lyman-α emitter down to parsec scales: extreme UV slopes, metal-poor regions and possibly leaking star clusters
• The Redshift Evolution of the Binary Black Hole Mass Distribution from Dense Star Clusters
• The Ages and Metallicities of the Globular Clusters in the Sparkler
• Realistic HI scale heights of Milky Way-mass galaxies in the FIREbox cosmological volume
• The accretion history of the Milky Way. I. How it shapes globular clusters and dwarf galaxies
• Imaging dark matter at the smallest scales with $z\approx 1$ lensed stars
• Catalogue of model star clusters in the Milky Way and M31 galaxies
• Stellar cluster formation in a Milky Way-sized galaxy at z>4 -- I. The proto-globular cluster population and the imposter amongst us
• Globular cluster metallicity distributions in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• Necessary conditions for the formation of filaments and star clusters in the cold neutral medium
• Globular cluster ages and their relation to high-redshift stellar cluster formation times from different globular cluster models
• Initial sizes of star clusters: implications for cluster dissolution during galaxy evolution
• The THESAN-ZOOM project: Star formation efficiency from giant molecular clouds to galactic scale in high-redshift starbursts
• A systematic analysis of star cluster disruption by tidal shocks -- II. Predicting star cluster dissolution rates from a time-series analysis of their tidal histories
• The life cycle of giant molecular clouds in simulated Milky Way-mass galaxies
• Mass Distribution of Binary Black Hole Mergers from Young and Old Dense Star Clusters
• The formation and disruption of globular cluster populations in simulations of present-day $L^{\ast }$ galaxies with controlled assembly histories
• The dynamical evolution of the stellar clumps in the Sparkler galaxy
• Gravitational wave inference of star cluster properties from intermediate-mass black hole mergers
• Properties of Globular Clusters in Galaxy Clusters: Sensitivity from the Formation and Evolution of Globular Clusters
• ARCHITECTS I: Impact of subgrid physics on the simulated properties of the circumgalactic medium
• Massive Star Clusters in the Semi-Analytical Galaxy Formation Model L-Galaxies 2020
• Chemo-dynamical reconstruction of Milky Way globular cluster progenitors: Age-metallicity relations and the universality of multiple stellar populations
• Semi-empirical constraints on the HI mass function of star-forming galaxies and ${\Omega }_{\mathrm{HI}}$ at $z\sim 0.37$ from interferometric surveys