The formation and assembly history of the Milky Way revealed by its globular cluster population

Abstract

We use the age-metallicity distribution of 96 Galactic globular clusters (GCs) to infer the formation and assembly history of the Milky Way (MW), culminating in the reconstruction of its merger tree. Based on a quantitative comparison of the Galactic GC population to the 25 cosmological zoom-in simulations of MW-mass galaxies in the E-MOSAICS project, which self-consistently model the formation and evolution of GC populations in a cosmological context, we find that the MW assembled quickly for its mass, reaching $\{25,50\}\%$ of its present-day halo mass already at $z=\{3,1.5\}$ and half of its present-day stellar mass at $z=1.2$. We reconstruct the MW's merger tree from its GC age-metallicity distribution, inferring the number of mergers as a function of mass ratio and redshift. These statistics place the MW's assembly $\text{rate}$ among the 72th-94th percentile of the E-MOSAICS galaxies, whereas its $\text{integrated}$ properties (e.g. number of mergers, halo concentration) match the median of the simulations. We conclude that the MW has experienced no major mergers (mass ratios $>$1:4) since $z\sim 4$, sharpening previous limits of $z\sim 2$. We identify three massive satellite progenitors and constrain their mass growth and enrichment histories. Two are proposed to correspond to Sagittarius (few $10^8{\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$) and the GCs formerly associated with Canis Major ($\sim 10^9{\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$). The third satellite has no known associated relic and was likely accreted between $z=0.6$-$1.3$. We name this enigmatic galaxy $\text{Kraken}$ and propose that it is the most massive satellite ($M_{\ast }\sim 2\times 10^9{\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$) ever accreted by the MW. We predict that $\sim 40\%$ of the Galactic GCs formed ex-situ (in galaxies with masses $M_{\ast }=2\times 10^7$-$2\times 10^9{\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$), with $6\pm 1$ being former nuclear clusters.

24 pages (including appendices), 6 figures, 5 tables; accepted by MNRAS (June 12, 2018), originally submitted on March 25, 2018; Figures 4 and 6 show the main results of the paper. Updated with published version, clarifying the intended historical use of "Canis Major" as referring to a group of GCs rather than a galaxy

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