On the relation between the Schmidt and Kennicutt-Schmidt star formation laws and its implications for numerical simulations

Abstract

When averaged over large scales, star formation in galaxies is observed to follow the empirical Kennicutt-Schmidt (KS) law for surface densities above a constant threshold. While the observed law involves surface densities, theoretical models and simulations generally work with volume density laws (i.e. Schmidt laws). We derive analytic relations between star formation laws expressed in terms of surface densities, volume densities, and pressures and we show how these relations depend on parameters such as the effective equation of state of the multiphase interstellar medium. Our analytic relations enable us to implement observed surface density laws into simulations. Because the parameters of our prescription for star formation are observables, we are not free to tune them to match the observations. We test our theoretical framework using high-resolution simulations of isolated disc galaxies that assume an effective equation of state for the multiphase interstellar medium. We are able to reproduce the star formation threshold and both the slope and the normalisation of arbitrary input KS laws without tuning any parameters and with very little scatter, even for unstable galaxies and even if we use poor numerical resolution. Moreover, we can do so for arbitrary effective equations of state. Our prescription therefore enables simulations of galaxies to bypass our current inability to simulate the formation of stars. On the other hand, the fact that we can reproduce arbitrary input thresholds and KS laws, rather than just the particular ones picked out by nature, indicates that simulations that lack the physics and/or resolution to simulate the multiphase interstellar medium can only provide limited insight into the origin of the observed star formation laws.

Accepted for publication in MNRAS, 14 pages and 9 figures. Minor changes

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• nIFTy galaxy cluster simulations V: Investigation of the Cluster Infall Region
• The metallicity distribution of HI systems in the EAGLE cosmological simulation
• The evolution of the UV luminosity function of globular clusters in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• Galaxies at Redshift ~0.5 Around Three Closely Spaced Quasar Sightlines
• Origins of carbon-enhanced metal-poor stars
• When is star formation episodic? A delay differential equation negative feedback model
• Deviations from the Schmidt-Kennicutt relations during early galaxy evolution
• The VLT LBG Redshift Survey - IV. Gas and galaxies at z ~ 3 in observations and simulations
• Absorption signatures of warm-hot gas at low redshift: NeVIII
• The interconnection between galaxy mergers, AGN activity and rapid quenching of star formation in simulated post-merger galaxies
• The origin of X-ray coronae around simulated disc galaxies
• Reproducing the CO-to-H${}_2$ conversion factor in cosmological simulations of Milky Way-mass galaxies
• Chemical evolution of giant molecular clouds in simulations of galaxies
• The assembly of spheroid-dominated galaxies in the EAGLE simulation
• Modeling multi-phase gases in cosmological simulations using compressible multi-fluid hydrodynamics
• Calibrated, cosmological hydrodynamical simulations with variable IMFs III: Spatially-resolved properties and evolution
• Galaxy properties in the cosmic web of EAGLE simulation
• The galaxy morphology-density relation in the EAGLE simulation
• The First Billion Years project: dark matter haloes going from contraction to expansion and back again
• Cosmology with velocity dispersion counts: an alternative to measuring cluster halo masses
• Dark influences II: gas and star formation in minor mergers of dwarf galaxies with dark satellites
• Galaxies with monstrous black holes in galaxy cluster environments
• SEAGLE--II: Constraints on feedback models in galaxy formation from massive early type strong lens galaxies
• Exploring extensions to the standard cosmological model and the impact of baryons on small scales
• EAGLE-like simulation models do not solve the entropy core problem in groups and clusters of galaxies
• The SRG/eROSITA All-Sky Survey: Constraints on AGN Feedback in Galaxy Groups
• The low abundance and insignificance of dark discs in simulated Milky Way galaxies
• Multi-wavelength scaling relations in galaxy groups: a detailed comparison of GAMA and KiDS observations to BAHAMAS simulations
• The Cosmic Dispersion Measure in the EAGLE Simulations
• On the inconsistency between the estimates of cosmic star formation rate and stellar mass density of high redshift galaxies
• Characterising Tidal Features Around Galaxies in Cosmological Simulations
• Schmidt-Kennicutt relations in SPH simulations of disc galaxies with effective thermal feedback from supernovae
• The BAHAMAS project: Effects of dynamical dark energy on large-scale structure
• The changing circumgalactic medium over the last 10 Gyr I: physical and dynamical properties
• Local Group star formation in warm and self-interacting dark matter cosmologies
• The cosmic spectral energy distribution in the EAGLE simulation
• The evolution of the baryon fraction in halos as a cause of scatter in the galaxy stellar mass in the EAGLE simulation
• The diversity of assembly histories leading to disc galaxy formation in a LambdaCDM model
• Dark influences: imprints of dark satellites on dwarf galaxies
• The impact of dark energy on galaxy formation. What does the future of our Universe hold?
• What Is Inside Matters: Simulated Green Valley Galaxies Have Centrally Concentrated Star Formation
• The First Billion Years Project: Finding Infant Globular Clusters at z=6
• Clumpy galaxies in cosmological simulations: The effect of ISM model
• The observed cosmic star formation rate density has an evolution which resembles a Γ(a, bt) distribution and can be described successfully by only 2 parameters
• Galaxy Evolution: Modeling the Role of Non-thermal Pressure in the Interstellar medium
• The BAHAMAS project: Effects of a running scalar spectral index on large-scale structure
• The Cluster-EAGLE project: a comparison of dynamical mass estimators using simulated clusters
• The stellar mass function and evolution of the density profile of galaxy clusters from the Hydrangea simulations at $0<z<1.5$
• The Kennicutt-Schmidt law and the main sequence of galaxies in Newtonian and Milgromian dynamics
• The environmental dependence of neutral hydrogen in the GIMIC simulations
• ALMA Resolves Giant Molecular Clouds in a Tidal Dwarf Galaxy
• Influence of baryonic physics in galaxy simulations: a semi-analytic treatment of the molecular component
• Diagnosing the interstellar medium of galaxies with far-infrared emission lines I. The [C II] 158 microns line at z~0
• Local and global gas metallicity versus stellar age relation in MaNGA galaxies
• Star Formation and Gas Phase History of the Cosmic Web
• Evaluating hydrodynamical simulations with green valley galaxies
• Globular cluster metallicity distributions in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• Regulated star formation in forming disk galaxies under ultraviolet radiation background
• Calibrated, cosmological hydrodynamical simulations with variable IMFs II: Correlations between the IMF and global galaxy properties
• Redshift evolution of the hot intracluster gas metallicity in the C-EAGLE cluster simulations
• The FLAMINGO project: Baryonic impact on weak gravitational lensing convergence peak counts
• Volumetric Star Formation Prescriptions in Vertically Resolved Edge-on Galaxies
• The impact of Self-Interacting Dark Matter on the Intrinsic Alignments of Galaxies
• Gas Accretion and Star Formation Rates
• Searching for the shadows of giants: characterising protoclusters with line of sight Lyman-α absorption
• The distribution and properties of DLAs at z $\le$ 2 in the EAGLE simulations
• Diagnosing the interstellar medium of galaxies with far-infrared emission lines II. [C II], [O I], [O III], [N II] and [N III] up to z=6
• On the Edge: the relation between stellar and dark matter haloes of Milky Way-mass galaxies
• Why weak lensing cluster shapes are insensitive to self-interacting dark matter
• Ram pressure stripping in the EAGLE simulation
• How to Interpret Measurements of Diffuse Light in Stacked Observations of Groups and Clusters of Galaxies
• Mechanical feedback from stellar winds with an application to galaxy formation at high redshift
• The First Billion Years project: gamma-ray bursts at z>5
• Galaxy-Galaxy Lensing in EAGLE: comparison with data from 180 square degrees of the KiDS and GAMA surveys
• Gas dynamics and star formation in NGC 6822
• The origin of star-gas misalignments in simulated galaxies
• Galactic satellite systems in CDM, WDM and SIDM
• Drivers of asymmetry in synthetic H I emission-line profiles of galaxies in the EAGLE simulation
• Galaxy growth from redshift 5 to 0 at fixed comoving number density
• Angular momentum-related probe of cold gas deficiencies
• History of the gas fuelling star formation in eagle galaxies
• The circumgalactic medium in Lyman-alpha: a new constraint on galactic outflow models
• The signal of decaying dark matter with hydrodynamical simulations
• Self-gravitating equilibrium models of dwarf galaxies and the minimum mass for star formation
• Milky Way-like galaxies: stellar population properties of dynamically defined disks, bulges and stellar halos
• The Star-Formation Properties of the Observed and Simulated AGN Universe: BAT vs EAGLE
• Constraints on galactic outflows from the metallicity-stellar mass-SFR relation of EAGLE simulation and SDSS galaxies
• The physics governing the upper truncation mass of the globular cluster mass function
• A model for the infrared-radio correlation of main-sequence galaxies at GHz frequencies and its variation on redshift and stellar mass
• The Baryon Cycle at High Redshifts: Effects of Galactic Winds on Galaxy Evolution in Overdense and Average Regions
• SEAGLE--III: Towards resolving the mismatch in the dark-matter fraction in early-type galaxies between simulations and observations
• The SAMI Galaxy Survey: understanding observations of large-scale outflows at low redshift with EAGLE simulations
• HSC-CLAUDS survey: The star formation rate functions since z ~ 2 and comparison with hydrodynamical simulations
• Resolution criteria to avoid artificial clumping in Lagrangian hydrodynamic simulations with a multi-phase interstellar medium
• Accretion of Small Satellites and Gas Inflows in a Disc Galaxy
• Using EAGLE simulations to study the effect of observational constraints on the determination of HI asymmetries in galaxies
• Galaxy cluster aperture masses are more robust to baryonic effects than 3D halo masses
• The chemical imprint of the bursty nature of Milky Way's progenitors
• ARTEMIS emulator: exploring the effect of cosmology and galaxy formation physics on Milky Way-mass haloes and their satellites
• The morphology of star-forming gas and its alignment with galaxies and dark matter haloes in the EAGLE simulations
• Clustering of emission line galaxies with IllustrisTNG I.: fundamental properties and halo occupation distribution
• Positive and negative feedback by AGN jets in high-redshift galaxies
• Non-explosive pre-supernova feedback in the COLIBRE model of galaxy formation
• Lyman alpha Properties of Simulated Galaxies in Overdense Regions: Effects of Galactic Winds at z > 6
• Studying galaxy cluster morphological metrics with Mock-X
• Star Formation during Galaxy Formation
• A sparse regression approach to modeling the relation between galaxy stellar masses and their host halos
• Map-level baryonification: unified treatment of weak lensing two-point and higher-order statistics
• A comprehensive study on the relation between the metal enrichment of ionised and atomic gas in star-forming galaxies
• COLIBRE: calibrating subgrid feedback in cosmological simulations that include a cold gas phase
• On the variation in stellar $\alpha$-enhancements of star-forming galaxies in the EAGLE simulation
• On the application of dimensionality reduction and clustering algorithms for the classification of kinematic morphologies of galaxies
• The relationship between cluster environment and molecular gas content of star-forming galaxies in the EAGLE simulation
• Dark-ages reionization and galaxy formation simulation - IX. Economics of reionizing galaxies
• The formation and disruption of globular cluster populations in simulations of present-day $L^{\ast }$ galaxies with controlled assembly histories
• The FLAMINGO project: cosmology with the redshift dependence of weak gravitational lensing peaks
• NIHAO-RiNG: A Comparison of Simulated Disc Galaxies from GASOLINE and GIZMO
• CEMPlifying reionization
• The luminosity of cluster galaxies in the Cluster-EAGLE simulations
• Dark-ages Reionization and Galaxy Formation Simulation - XV. Stellar evolution and feedback in dwarf galaxies at high redshift
• Precision Pollution - The effects of enrichment yields and timing on galactic chemical evolution
• Jet-mode feedback in NGC 5972: insights from resolved MUSE, GMRT and VLA observations
• The COS-Holes Survey: Connecting Galaxy Black Hole Mass with the State of the CGM
• Star formation and stellar & AGN feedback in the absence of accretion, not gas stripping, set the quenching timescale in satellite galaxies
• The average structural evolution of massive galaxies can be reliably estimated using cumulative galaxy number densities
• Intrinsic alignments of the extended radio continuum emission of galaxies in the EAGLE simulations
• The "Building Blocks" of Stellar Halos
• Dark-ages Reionization and Galaxy Formation Simulation - XIV. Gas accretion, cooling and star formation in dwarf galaxies at high redshift
• The weak connection between the stellar haloes and merger histories of Milky Way-mass galaxies
• DARKSKIES: A suite of super-sampled zoom-in simulations of galaxy clusters with self-interacting dark matter
• Stellar-gas kinematic misalignments in EAGLE: lifetimes and longevity of misaligned galaxies
• The Volumetric Extended-Schmidt Law: A Unity Slope
• Cospatial 21 cm and metal-line absorbers in the epoch of reionization -- I : Incidence and observability
• Hidden Figures in the Sky: Evolution of low-surface brightness galaxies from a hydro-dynamical perspective
• Understanding the large inferred Einstein radii of observed low-mass galaxy clusters
• Prospects for detecting the circum- and intergalactic medium in X-ray absorption using the extended intracluster medium as a backlight
• Modeling the Disk (three-phase) Interstellar Medium
• Self-sustaining star formation fronts in filaments during cosmic dawn
• Gemini Follow-up of two massive HI clouds discovered with the Australian Square Kilometer Array Pathfinder
• The FLAMINGO simulations data release
• Probing Time-Dependent Dark Energy with the Flux Power Spectrum of the Lyman $\alpha$ Forest
• Baryon-driven decontraction in Milky Way mass haloes
• The haloes that reionized the Universe
• Linking the Internal Properties of Infant Globular Clusters to their Formation Environments
• An Interpretable AI Framework to Disentangle Self-Interacting and Cold Dark Matter in Galaxy Clusters: The CKAN Approach
• First Light And Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES) III: The properties of massive dusty galaxies at cosmic dawn
• Aligned and misaligned metallicity gradients in young stars and star-forming regions in the EAGLE discs
• Using the EAGLE simulations to elucidate the origin of disc surface brightness profile breaks as a function of mass and environment
• The Halo21 Absorption Modeling Challenge: Lessons From "Observing" Synthetic Circumgalactic Absorption Spectra
• Predictions for the X-ray circumgalactic medium of edge-on discs and spheroids
• Exploring the halo occupation distribution for moderate X-ray luminosity active galactic nuclei in the EAGLE cosmological simulation
• Ray-traced weak lensing convergence in screened modified gravity theories
• Galaxy mergers can initiate quenching by unlocking an AGN-driven transformation of the baryon cycle
• The importance of the way in which supernova energy is distributed around young stellar populations in simulations of galaxies
• Three-point intrinsic alignments of galaxies and haloes in the FLAMINGO simulations
• The interplay between AGN feedback and precipitation of the intracluster medium in simulations of galaxy groups and clusters
• Entropy plateaus can emerge from gas replacement at a characteristic halo mass in simulated groups and clusters of galaxies
• Evaluating quenching in cosmological simulations of galaxy formation with spectral covariance in the optical window
• Shape, alignment, and mass distribution of baryonic and dark-matter halos in one EAGLE simulation
• SF-R You Sure? The Conflicting Role of Star Formation Rates in Constraining the Evolution of Milky Way Analogues in Cosmological Simulations