The Evolution of Galaxy Structure over Cosmic Time

Abstract

I present a comprehensive review of the evolution of galaxy structure in the universe from the first galaxies we can currently observe at z~6 down to galaxies we see in the local universe. I further address how these changes reveal galaxy formation processes that galaxy structural analyses can provide. This review is pedagogical and begins with a detailed discussion of the major methods in which galaxies are studied morphologically and structurally. This includes the well-established visual method; Sersic fitting to measure galaxy sizes and surface brightness profile shapes; non-parametric structural methods including the concentration (C), asymmetry (A), clumpiness (S) (CAS) method, as well as newer structural indices. Included is a discussion of how these structural indices measure fundamental properties of galaxies such as their scale, star formation rate, and ongoing merger activity. Extensive observational results are shown demonstrating how broad galaxy morphologies and structures change with time up to z~3, from small, compact and peculiar systems in the distant universe to the formation of the Hubble sequence we find today. This review further addresses how structural methods measure accurately the merger history out to z~3. The properties and evolution of bulges, disks, bars, and at z>1 large star forming clumps are also described, along with how morphological galaxy quenching occurs. Furthermore, the role of environment in producing structure in galaxies over cosmic time is treated. Alongside the evolution of general structure, I also delineate how galaxy sizes change with time, with measured sizes up to a factor of 2-5 smaller at high redshift at a given stellar mass. This review concludes with a discussion of how galaxy structure reveals the formation mechanisms behind galaxies, providing a new and unique way to test theories of galaxy formation.

Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ARAA), vol 52 (2014), in press, 49 pages

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• WALLABY Early Science -- IV. ASKAP HI imaging of the nearby galaxy IC 5201
• Cosmic Evolution of Barred Galaxies up to z ~ 0.84
• Environmental Quenching and Galactic Conformity in the Galaxy Cross-Correlation Signal
• Bars formed in galaxy merging and their classification with deep learning
• The minimum and maximum gravitational-wave background from supermassive binary black holes
• Mapping the stellar population and gas excitation of MaNGA galaxies with MEGACUBES. Results for AGN versus control sample
• Spin Parity of Spiral Galaxies II: A catalogue of 80k spiral galaxies using big data from the Subaru Hyper Suprime-Cam Survey and deep learning
• Evolution of the chemical enrichment and the Mass-Metallicity relation in CALIFA galaxies
• Elevation or Suppression? The Resolved Star Formation Main Sequence of Galaxies with Two Different Assembly Modes
• ZOMG II: Does the halo assembly history influence central galaxies and gas accretion?
• Why do many early-type galaxies lack emission lines? I. Fossil clues
• Active galactic nuclei winds as the origin of the H${}_2$ emission excess in nearby galaxies
• Total mass density slopes of early-type galaxies using Jeans dynamical modelling at redshifts $0.29<z<0.55$
• Merging Galaxies with Tidal Tails in COSMOS to z=1
• DustPedia - the relationships between stars, gas and dust for galaxies residing in different environments
• Galaxy Outflows Without Supernovae
• KURVS: The outer rotation curve shapes and dark matter fractions of $z\sim 1.5$ star-forming galaxies
• Nonparametric galaxy morphology from UV to submm wavelengths
• Understanding the Unique Assembly History of Central Group Galaxies
• Galaxy Structure, Stellar Populations, and Star Formation Quenching at 0.6 $\lesssim$ $z$ $\lesssim$ 1.2
• What is Important? Morphological Asymmetries are Useful Predictors of Star Formation Rates of Star-forming Galaxies in SDSS Stripe 82
• A numerical twist on the observational spin parameter, ${\lambda }_R$
• Tracing star formation with non-thermal radio emission
• MICONIC: Dual active galactic nuclei, star formation, and ionised gas outflows in NGC 6240 seen with MIRI/JWST
• From haloes to galaxies -- II. The fundamental relations in star formation and quenching
• H-ATLAS/GAMA: The nature and characteristics of optically red galaxies detected at submillimetre wavelengths
• An Elusive Population of Massive Disk Galaxies Hosting Double-lobed Radio-loud AGNs
• Kinematic signatures of reverberation mapping of close binaries of supermassive black holes in active galactic nuclei. II. Atlas of two-dimensional transfer functions
• From Peculiar Morphologies to Hubble-type Spirals: The relation between galaxy dynamics and morphology in star-forming galaxies at z~1.5
• Exploring Proxies for the Supermassive Black Hole Mass Function: Implications for Pulsar Timing Arrays
• Early galaxy growth: mergers or gravitational instability?
• Cold Molecular Gas and Free-Free Emission from Hot, Dust-Obscured Galaxies at $z$~3
• Dust and Power: Unravelling the merger - active galactic nucleus connection in the second half of cosmic history
• The VLA Frontier Field Survey: A Comparison of the Radio and UV/optical size of $0.3\lesssim z\lesssim 3$ star-forming galaxies
• Resequencing the Hubble sequence and the quadratic (black hole mass)-(spheroid stellar mass) relation for elliptical galaxies
• The MUSE Ultra Deep Field (MUDF). III. Hubble Space Telescope WFC3 Grism Spectroscopy and Imaging
• The effect of environment on star formation activity and morphology at 0.5 < z < 2.5 in CANDELS
• The Impact of Redshift on Galaxy Morphometric Classification: case studies for SDSS, DES, LSST and HST with Morfometryka
• The Halo Occupation Distribution of Obscured Quasars: Revisiting the Unification Model
• The evolution of disc galaxies with and without classical bulges since z~1
• Extreme Variation in Star Formation Efficiency Across a Compact, Starbursting Disk Galaxy
• Effects of galaxy environment on merger fraction
• Powerful multiphase outflows in the central region of Cygnus A
• Rest-Frame Near-Infrared Radial Light Profiles up to z=3 from JWST/NIRCam: Wavelength Dependence of the Sérsic Index
• Gravitational orbits in the expanding universe revisited
• The clustering of X-ray AGN at 0.5 < z < 4.5: host galaxies dictate dark matter halo mass
• JWST's PEARLS: resolved study of the stellar and dust components in starburst galaxies at cosmic noon
• Setting firmer constraints on the evolution of the most massive, central galaxies from their local abundances and ages
• The Relation between Morphological Asymmetry and Nuclear Activity in Low-redshift Galaxies
• DAWN JWST Archive: Morphology from profile fitting of over 340 000 galaxies in major fields
• Regulating Star Formation in Nearby Dusty Galaxies: Low Photoelectric Efficiencies in the Most Compact Systems
• Massive Early-Type Galaxies in the HSC-SSP: Flux Fraction of Tidal Features and Merger Rates
• The MOSDEF Survey: No Significant Enhancement in Star Formation or Deficit in Metallicity in Merging Galaxy Pairs at 1.5<=z<=3.5
• Deep Extragalactic VIsible Legacy Survey (DEVILS): Evolution of the ${\sigma }_{\mathrm{SFR}}$-M${}_{\star }$ relation and implications for self-regulated star formation
• PANORAMIC: Discovery of an Ultra-Massive Grand-Design Spiral Galaxy at $z\sim 5.2$
• CANDELS Meets GSWLC: Evolution of the Relationship Between Morphology and Star Formation Since z = 2
• Nonparametric galaxy morphology from stellar and nebular emission with the CALIFA sample
• Massive Galaxy Mergers Have Distinctive Global HI Profiles
• Kinematics and Mass Distributions for Non-Spherical Deprojected Sérsic Density Profiles and Applications to Multi-Component Galactic Systems
• Witnessing the star-formation quenching in $L_{\ast }$ ellipticals
• The MOSDEF Survey: Differences in SFR and Metallicity for Morphologically-Selected Mergers at z~2
• Deep Learning Assessment of galaxy morphology in S-PLUS DataRelease 1
• Characterising the Structure of Halo Merger Trees Using a Single Parameter: The Tree Entropy
• Identifying the progenitors of present-day early-type galaxies in observational surveys: correcting `progenitor bias' using the Horizon-AGN simulation
• Connecting galaxy structure and star formation: the role of environment in formation of S0 galaxies
• Morphological Classification of Local Luminous Infrared Galaxies
• The resolved chemical abundance properties within the interstellar medium of star-forming galaxies at $\text{z}\approx 1.5$
• On The Effect of Environment on Line Emission from the Circumgalactic Medium
• The rate and contribution of mergers to mass assembly from NIRCam observations of galaxy candidates up to 13.3 billion years ago
• ERGO-ML: Comparing IllustrisTNG and HSC galaxy images via contrastive learning
• The dispersion measure and rotation measure from fast radio burst host galaxies based on the IllustrisTNG50 simulation
• Simulation-based inference of deep fields: galaxy population model and redshift distributions
• Dynamics and spin alignment in massive, gravito-turbulent circumbinary discs around supermassive black hole binaries
• Estimating Sky Level
• Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA): Probing the merger histories of massive galaxies via stellar populations
• IllustrisTNG Insights: Factors Affecting the Presence of Bars in Disk Galaxies
• Environmental impacts on the rest-frame UV size and morphology ofstar-forming galaxies at $z\sim 2$
• Stellar feedback in a clumpy galaxy at $z\sim$ 3.4
• Denser Environments Cultivate Larger Galaxies: A Comprehensive Study beyond the Local Universe with 3 Million Hyper Suprime-Cam Galaxies
• Correlation of structure and stellar properties of galaxies in Stripe 82
• Three Dusty Star Forming Galaxies at $z\sim 1.5$: Mergers and Disks on the Main Sequence
• Do current X-ray observations capture most of the black-hole accretion at high redshifts?
• The mass dependence of structure, star formation rate, and mass assembly mode at 0.5<z< 2.5
• Bulgeless disks, dark galaxies, inverted color gradients, and other expected phenomena at higher z. The chromatic surface brightness modulation (CMOD) effect
• The quenched mass portion of star-forming galaxies and the origin of the star formation sequence slope
• Inferring the 3-D shapes of extremely metal-poor galaxies from sets of projected shapes
• Structures, stellar population properties, AGN fractions, and environments of massive compact galaxies at $1<z<2$ in 3D--{\it HST}/CANDELS
• Revealing the quiescent galaxy population in the Spiderweb protocluster at z=2.16 with deep HST/WFC3 slitless spectroscopy
• The Size Evolution of Elliptical Galaxies
• Size and Spectroscopic Evolution of HectoMAP Quiescent Galaxies
• Surveys of the Cosmic X-ray Background
• Bayesian fitting of multi-Gaussian expansion models to galaxy images
• The redshift evolution of the S0 fraction for $z<1$ in COSMOS
• Early results from GLASS-JWST. XX: Unveiling a population of "red-excess'' galaxies in Abell2744 and in the coeval field
• Lessons Learned from the Two Largest Galaxy Morphological Classification Catalogues built by Convolutional Neural Networks
• A Comparison of Star-Forming Clumps and Tidal Tails in Local Mergers and High Redshift Galaxies
• The MOSDEF Survey: An Improved Voronoi Binning Technique on Spatially Resolved Stellar Populations at z~2
• Formation of disc galaxies around z~2
• Bar rejuvenation in S0 galaxies?
• Gemini IFU, VLA, and HST observation of the OH Megamaser Galaxy IRAS17526+3253
• Probing the fluctuating Ultra-violet background using the Hubble Frontier Fields
• PROBES-I: A Compendium of Deep Rotation Curves and Matched multiband Photometry
• Zoom-in cosmological hydrodynamical simulation of a star-forming barred, spiral galaxy at redshift z=2
• The physical properties of massive green valley galaxies as a function of environments at $0.5<z<2.5$ in 3D-\textit{HST}/CANDELS fields
• Probing the Delay Time of Supermassive Black Hole Binary Mergers With Gravitational Waves
• Evolution of the Sérsic Index up to z=2.5 from JWST and HST
• Less Wound and More Asymmetric: JWST Confirms the Evolution of Spiral Structure in Galaxies at $z\lesssim 3$
• RemoveYoung: A tool for the removal of the young stellar component in galaxies within an adjustable age cutoff
• JWST/MIRI unveils the stellar component of the GN20 dusty galaxy overdensity at $z$=4.05
• Euclid: Early Release Observations of diffuse stellar structures and globular clusters as probes of the mass assembly of galaxies in the Dorado group
• Optical IFU Observations of GOALS Sample with KOOLS-IFU on Seimei Telescope: Initial results of 9 U/LIRGs at $z<$ 0.04
• The Baltimore Oriole's Nest: Cool Winds from the Inner and Outer Parts of a Star-Forming Galaxy at z=1.3
• The Star-Forming Interstellar Medium of Lyman Break Galaxy Analogs
• Finding AGN remnant candidates based on radio morphology with machine learning
• How well can we unravel the accreted constituents of the Milky Way stellar halo? A test on cosmological hydrodynamical simulations
• On the relationship between Type Ia supernova luminosity and host-galaxy properties
• Asymmetry Revisited: The Effect of Dust Attenuation and Galaxy Inclination
• Emission Line Galaxies in the SHARDS Frontier Fields I: Candidate Selection and the Discovery of Bursty Hα Emitters
• Evolution of the galaxy merger fraction in the CLAUDS+HSC-SSP deep fields
• Probing galaxy evolution from $z=0$ to $z\simeq 10$ through galaxy scaling relations in three L-Galaxies flavours
• FEASTS Combined with Interferometry. III. The Low Column Density HI Around M51 and Possibility of Turbulent-mixing Gas Accretion
• A Morphological Study on Galaxies Hosting Optical Variability-Selected AGNs in the COSMOS Field
• Hydrodynamical Simulations of the Triggering of Nuclear Activities by Minor Mergers of Galaxies
• The central dark matter fraction of massive early-type galaxies
• Merger identification through photometric bands, colours, and their errors
• Growth of disc-like pseudo-bulges in SDSS DR7 since z = 0.1
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: Unveiling Galaxy Interaction by Merger Stages with Machine Learning
• Differential Interferometric Signatures of Close Binaries of Supermassive Black Holes in Active Galactic Nuclei: II. Merged Broad Line Regions
• An interacting galaxy pair at the origin of a light echo
• Radio AGN jet alignment: Radio and Optical Position Angle of Radio Galaxies
• Locations and Morphologies of Jellyfish Galaxies in A2744 and A370
• The Halo Masses of Galaxies to $z\sim 3$: A Hybrid Observational and Theoretical Approach
• On the application of dimensionality reduction and clustering algorithms for the classification of kinematic morphologies of galaxies
• MaNGA integral-field stellar kinematics of LoTSS radio galaxies: Luminous radio galaxies tend to be slow rotators
• Determining the time before or after a galaxy merger event
• A nuclear spiral in a dusty star-forming galaxy at $z=2.78$
• ALPINE: A Large Survey to Understand Teenage Galaxies
• Local Two-Sample Testing: A New Tool for Analysing High-Dimensional Astronomical Data
• Environmental effects on galaxy evolution. II: quantifying the tidal features in NIR-images of the cluster Abell 85
• A morphological segmentation approach to determining bar lengths
• Flashlights: Prospects for constraining the Initial Mass Function around cosmic noon with caustic-crossing events
• Measuring Structural Parameters Through Stacking Galaxy Images
• MUSE Analysis of Gas around Galaxies (MAGG) -- VI. The cool and enriched gas environment of z$\gtrsim$3 Ly$\alpha$ emitters
• Constraining Cosmology with Double-source-plane Strong Gravitational Lenses from the AGEL Survey
• Galaxy pairs in The Three Hundred simulations II: studying bound ones and identifying them via machine learning
• Growth problems of stellar black holes in early galaxies
• Modeling the Mass Distribution and Gravitational Potential of Nearby Disk Galaxies: Implications for the ISM Dynamical Equilibrium
• Extremely Low Molecular Gas Content in the Vicinity of a Red Nugget Galaxy at $z=1.91$
• STRRINGS: STReams in Residual Images of Nearby GalaxieS
• IllustrisTNG in the HSC-SSP: No Shortage of Thin Disk Galaxies in TNG50
• An efficient unsupervised classification model for galaxy morphology: Voting clustering based on coding from ConvNeXt large model
• Stellar evolution and modelling stars
• A Machine Learning Approach to Integral Field Unit Spectroscopy Observations: III. Disentangling Multiple Components in Hii regions
• PoPE: A population-based approach to model spatial structure of astronomical systems
• First Light And Reionisation Epoch Simulations (FLARES) XVI: Size Evolution of Massive Dusty Galaxies at Cosmic Dawn from UV to IR
• A statistical study of lopsided galaxies using random forest
• A giant central red disk galaxy at redshift $z=0.76$: challenge to theories of galaxy formation
• Emission Line Galaxies in the SHARDS Hubble Frontier Fields II: Limits on Lyman-Continuum Escape Fractions of Lensed Emission Line Galaxies at Redshifts 2 < z < 3.5
• Deep Large Binocular Camera r-band Observations of the GOODS-N Field
• Identification and analysis of galactic bars in DESI Legacy Imaging Surveys
• Tracing the origins of galaxy lopsidedness across cosmic time
• GalaxyGenius: Mock galaxy image generator for various telescopes from hydrodynamical simulations
• Does the lockstep growth between black holes and bulges create their mass relation?
• The MOSDEF Survey: Probing Resolved Stellar Populations at $z\sim 2$ Using a New Bayesian-defined Morphology Metric Called Patchiness
• Identification and Properties of Isolated Field Elliptical Galaxies from CFHTLS-W1
• The JWST Emission Line Survey (JELS): The sizes and merger fraction of star-forming galaxies during the Epoch of Reionization
• SDSS J1059+4251, a highly magnified z ~ 2.8 star-forming galaxy: ESI observations of the rest-frame UV spectrum
• Euclid preparation. LXVII. Deep learning true galaxy morphologies for weak lensing shear bias calibration
• Shapes of galaxies hosting radio-loud AGNs with z \leq 1
• Morphological evolution of disk galaxies and their concentration, asymmetry and clumpiness (CAS) properties in simulations across Toomre's $Q$ parameter
• Radial Dependence of the Proto-Globular Cluster Contribution to the Milky Way Formation
• Asymmetry at Low Surface Brightness as an Indicator of Environmental Processes in the Fornax Cluster
• Modelling the photometric and morphological evolution of disc galaxies in the cluster environment
• Unlocking GOES: A Statistical Framework for Quantifying the Evolution of Convective Structure in Tropical Cyclones
• COSMOS2025: Machine Learning Classification of Early- and Late-type Galaxies at 0 < z < 3
• Euclid preparation: TBD. Cosmic Dawn Survey: evolution of the galaxy stellar mass function across 0.2<z<6.5 measured over 10 square degrees
• Evolution of Size, Mass, and Density of Galaxies Since Cosmic Dawn
• Automatic morphological classification of galaxies: convolutional autoencoder and bagging-based multiclustering model
• LeMMINGs. V. Nuclear activity and bulge properties: a detailed multi-component decomposition of $e$-MERLIN Palomar galaxies with $HST$
• Mass assembly and AGN activity at $z\gtrsim 1.5$ in the dense environment of XDCPJ0044.0-2033
• Quantitative analysis of the molecular gas morphology in nearby disk galaxies
• Two-phase formation of galaxies: the coevolution between galaxies and dark matter halos
• Linear response of rotating and flattened stellar clusters: the oblate Kuzmin-Kutuzov Stäckel family
• ULISSE: Determination of star-formation rate and stellar mass based on the one-shot galaxy imaging technique
• Deciphering galaxy images using machine vision -- Combining variational autoencoder and principal component analysis for feature extraction
• Compact [OIII] emission-line regions ("Green Seeds") in $\mathrm{H}\alpha$ emitters at Cosmic Noon from JWST Observations
• Disclosing Submillimeter Galaxy Formation: Mergers or Secular Evolution?
• Capivara: A Spectral-based Segmentation Method for IFU Data Cubes
• Clusters, Clumps, Dust, & Gas (CCDG) in NGC1614: Bench-marking Cluster Demographics in Extreme Systems
• The Next Generation Virgo Cluster Survey (NGVS). XL. The Morphological Classification of Virgo Cluster Galaxies
• Multiwavelength morphological study of active galaxies
• TDE 2025abcr: A Tidal Disruption Event in the Outskirts of a Massive Galaxy
• SMARTY: The mileS Moderate resolution neAr-infRared sTellar librarY
• BASS. XLIV. Morphological preferences of local hard X-ray selected AGN
• Can dark-matter Q-balls grow to the mass gap masses?
• A Model For Intergalactic Filaments and Galaxy Formation During the First Gigayear
• Overview of the ESCAPE Dark Matter Test Science Project for Astronomers
• SF-R You Sure? The Conflicting Role of Star Formation Rates in Constraining the Evolution of Milky Way Analogues in Cosmological Simulations
• Effect of AGN on the morphological properties of their host galaxies in the local Universe
• A Simulation Driven Deep Learning Approach for Separating Mergers and Star Forming Galaxies: The Formation Histories of Clumpy Galaxies in all the CANDELS Fields
• Merger or Not: Accounting for Human Biases in Identifying Galactic Merger Signatures
• Merger fraction in galaxy groups and clusters at z < 0.2: A non-parametric morphological study with Subaru Hyper Suprime-Cam
• Everything Every Band All at Once I: A Global Morphology Catalog in Abell 2744 based on UNCOVER/MegaScience
• COSMOS-Web: Galaxy Size and Surface Brightness Evolution at Rest-Frame 1.22 $\mu$m Since $z=3$
• Observed structural parameters of EAGLE galaxies: reconciling the mass-size relation in simulations with local observations
• The multiwavelength structure of post-starburst galaxies at 0.5 < z < 3 with JWST PRIMER: compact morphologies and residual disturbances
• Size-Mass Relation Shows Its Colours: Contrasting Physical Imprints of Galaxy Evolution in Rest-Frame UV and Optical
• The Fornax Deep Survey (FDS) with the VST: III. Low Surface Brightness (LSB) dwarfs and Ultra Diffuse Galaxies (UDGs) in the center of the Fornax cluster
• A semi-analytical perspective on massive red galaxies: I. Assembly history, environment & redshift evolution