The CO-to-H2 Conversion Factor From Infrared Dust Emission Across the Local Group

Abstract

We estimate the conversion factor relating CO emission to H2 mass, alpha_CO, in five Local Group galaxies that span approximately an order of magnitude in metallicity - M31, M 33, the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), NGC 6822, and the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC). We model the dust mass along the line of sight from infrared (IR) emission and then solve for the alpha_CO that best allows a single gas-to-dust ratio (delta_GDR) to describe each system. This approach remains sensitive to CO-dark envelopes of H2 surrounding molecular clouds. In M 31, M 33, and the LMC we find alpha_CO \approx 3-9 M_sun pc^-2 (K km s^-1)^-1, consistent with the Milky Way value within the uncertainties. The two lowest metallicity galaxies in our sample, NGC 6822 and the SMC (12 + log(O/H) \approx 8.2 and 8.0), exhibit a much higher alpha_CO. Our best estimates are α_NGC6822 \approx 30 M_sun/pc^-2 (K km s^-1)^-1 and α_SMC \approx 70 M_sun/pc^-2 (K km s-1)-1. These results are consistent with the conversion factor becoming CO a strong function of metallicity around 12 + log(O/H) \sim 8.4 - 8.2. We favor an interpretation where decreased dust-shielding leads to the dominance of CO-free envelopes around molecular clouds below this metallicity.

Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal, 15 pages, 7 figures

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• Reproducing the CO-to-H${}_2$ conversion factor in cosmological simulations of Milky Way-mass galaxies
• Chemical evolution of giant molecular clouds in simulations of galaxies
• C+/H2 Gas in Star-Forming Clouds and Galaxies
• Pinpointing the Molecular Gas within a Lyman Alpha Blob at z ~ 2.7
• The Parsec-Scale Relationship Between I_CO and A_V in Local Molecular Clouds
• (Sub)millimetre interferometric imaging of a sample of COSMOS/AzTEC submillimetre galaxies IV. Physical properties derived from spectral energy distributions
• Quantitative inference of the $H_2$ column densities from 3 mm molecular emission: A case study towards Orion B
• VLT/VIMOS Observations of an Occulting Galaxy Pair: Redshifts and Effective Extinction Curve
• Probing star formation and ISM properties using galaxy disk inclination I: Evolution in disk opacity since $z\sim 0.7$
• The Carbon-to-H${}_2$, CO-to-H${}_2$ Conversion Factors and Carbon Abundance on Kiloparsec Scales in Nearby Galaxies
• New ALMA constraints on the star-forming ISM at low metallicity: A 50 pc view of the blue compact dwarf galaxy SBS0335-052
• Evidence of extended cold molecular gas and dust halos around $\mathbf{z}\sim 2.3$ Extremely Red Quasars with ALMA
• Role of Thermal and Non-thermal Processes in the ISM of Magellanic Clouds
• Molecular gas and star formation within 12 strong galactic bars observed with IRAM-30m
• Suppressed CO emission and high G/D ratios in z=2 galaxies with sub-solar gas-phase metallicity
• The dust SED of dwarf galaxies I. The case of NGC 4214
• HYPERION. Coevolution of supermassive black holes and galaxies at $z>6$ and the build-up of massive galaxies
• Concurrent starbursts in molecular gas disks within a pair of colliding galaxies at z = 1.52
• Gas compression and stellar feedback in the tidally interacting and ram-pressure stripped Virgo spiral galaxy NGC 4654
• Observations of neutral carbon in 29 high-z lensed dusty star forming galaxies and the comparison of gas mass tracers
• Interpreting the star formation - extinction relation with MaNGA
• Three-Dimensional Structure and Dust Extinction in the Small Magellanic Cloud
• Dust, gas, and metal content in star-forming galaxies at $z\sim 3.3$ revealed with ALMA and Near-IR spectroscopy
• CO(2-1) Survey at 9 parsec resolution in the SMC
• z-GAL -- A NOEMA spectroscopic redshift survey of bright Herschel galaxies: [III] Physical properties
• Formation and evolution of molecular hydrogen in disk galaxies with different masses and Hubble types
• The gas inflow and outflow rate in star-forming galaxies at $z\sim 1.4$
• Over-sized gas clumps in an extremely-metal-poor molecular cloud revealed by ALMA's pc-scale maps
• A cold gas reservoir to fuel M31 nuclear black hole and stellar cluster
• Molecular gas in AzTEC/C159: a star-forming disk galaxy 1.3Gyr after the Big Bang
• Dissecting Nearby Galaxies with piXedfit: II. Spatially Resolved Scaling Relations Among Stars, Dust, and Gas
• Lurking systematics in predicting galaxy cold gas masses using dust luminosities and star formation rates
• HI Clouds in LITTLE THINGS Dwarf Irregular Galaxies
• Herschel and Hubble study of a lensed massive dusty starbursting galaxy at $z\sim 3$
• Mass and Environment as Drivers of Galaxy Evolution. IV. On the Quenching of Massive Central Disk Galaxies in The Local Universe
• Measuring the average molecular gas content of star-forming galaxies at $z=3-4$
• Dissecting the Mid-Infrared Heart of M83 with JWST
• The role of dust destruction and dust growth in the evolution of the interstellar medium
• Wide-field CO isotopologue emission and the CO-to-H${}_2$ factor across the nearby spiral galaxy M101
• The ALMA-CRISTAL survey: Resolved kinematic studies of main sequence star-forming galaxies at 4<z<6
• Probing the baryon cycle of galaxies with SPICA mid- and far-infrared observations
• Millimeter dust emission compared with other mass estimates in N11 molecular clouds in the LMC
• Multi-Phase ISM in the z = 5.7 Hyperluminous Starburst SPT0346-52
• WISDOM Project XII. Clump properties and turbulence regulated by clump-clump collisions in the dwarf galaxy NGC404
• An extremely low gas-to-dust ratio in the dust-lane lenticular galaxy NGC 5485
• Molecular gas properties of UV-luminous star-forming galaxies at low redshift
• Observational Constraints on the Molecular Gas Content in Nearby Starburst Dwarf Galaxies
• The dust properties and physical conditions of the interstellar medium in the LMC massive star forming complex N11
• Optical-faint, Far-infrared-bright Herschel Sources in the CANDELS Fields: Ultra-Luminous Infrared Galaxies at z>1 and the Effect of Source Blending
• The Lyman Alpha Reference Sample XI: Efficient Turbulence Driven Lyα Escape and the Analysis of IR, CO and [C II]158 μm
• Big Three Dragons: Molecular Gas in a Bright Lyman-Break Galaxy at $z=7.15$
• The fate of the interstellar medium in early-type galaxies. III. The mechanism of ISM removal and quenching of star formation
• Starbursts with suppressed velocity dispersion revealed in a forming cluster at z=2.51
• ALMA CO Observations of the Host Galaxies of Long-duration Gamma-ray Bursts. I: Molecular Gas Scaling Relations
• Clusters, Clouds, and Correlations: Relating Young Clusters to Giant Molecular Clouds in M33 and M31
• Cospatial Star Formation and Supermassive Black Hole Growth in $z\sim 3$ Galaxies: Evidence for In-situ Co-evolution
• Tidal Tails of Minor Mergers II: Comparing Star Formation in the Tidal Tails of NGC 2782
• CO Multi-line Imaging of Nearby Galaxies (COMING). XII. CO-to-H${}_2$ Conversion Factor and Dust-to-Gas Ratio
• Detection of [O III] at z~3: A Galaxy above the Main Sequence, Rapidly Assembling its Stellar Mass
• Evolution of Dust-Obscured Star Formation and Gas to z=2.2 from HiZELS
• The Gas Mass Reservoir of Quiescent Galaxies at Cosmic Noon
• Properties of Molecular Gas in Galaxies in Early and Mid Stage of the Interaction: I. Distribution of Molecular Gas
• Global Correlations Between the Radio Continuum, Infrared and CO Emission in Dwarf Galaxies
• AlFoCS + F3D II: unexpectedly low gas-to-dust ratios in the Fornax galaxy cluster
• A search for dust and molecular gas in enormous Ly$\alpha$ nebulae at $z\approx 2$
• Cosmic Reionization On Computers. Ultraviolet Continuum Slopes and Dust Opacities in High Redshift Galaxies
• A deep search for CO J=2-1 emission from a Lyman-Alpha blob at z~6.595
• Extremely weak CO emission in IZw 18
• The Subtle Effects of Mergers on Star Formation in Nearby Galaxies
• ALMA Observations of HCO+ and HCN Emission in a massive star forming region N55 of the Large Magellanic Cloud
• Extraplanar gas in Edge-on Galaxies traced by SOFIA observations of [C II]
• Molecular gas budget and characterization of intermediate-mass star-forming galaxies at $z\approx 2-3$
• Properties of Bulgeless Disk Galaxies II. Star Formation as a Function of Circular Velocity
• Lack of Correlations between Cold Molecular Gas and AGN Properties in Type 1 AGNs at $z\lesssim 0.5$
• Tracing the evolutionary pathways of dust and cold gas in high-z quiescent galaxies with SIMBA
• Molecular Clouds: Internal Properties, Turbulence, Star Formation and Feedback
• Simultaneous Deep Measurements of CO isotopologues and Dust Emission in Giant Molecular Clouds in the Andromeda Galaxy
• SEEDisCS I. Molecular gas in galaxy clusters and their large scale structure: the case of CL1411.1$-$1148 at $z\sim 0.5$
• JCMT Mapping of CO(3-2) in the Circumnuclear Region of M31
• Kpc-scale properties of dust temperature in terms of dust mass and star formation activity
• CO Multi-line Imaging of Nearby Galaxies (COMING). X. Physical conditions of molecular gas and the local SFR-Mass relation
• Metallicity dependence of the CO-to-H${}_2$ and the [CI]-to-H${}_2$ conversion factors in galaxies
• First Resolved Dust Continuum Measurements of Individual Giant Molecular Clouds in the Andromeda Galaxy
• ALMA Lensing Cluster Survey: A spectral stacking analysis of [CII] in lensed $z\sim 6$ galaxies
• The Opacity of Spiral Galaxy Disks IX; Dust and Gas Surface Densities
• $\text{Herschel}$ Photometric Observations of $\mathrm{L}\mathrm{ITTLE}$ $\mathrm{T}\mathrm{HINGS}$ Dwarf Galaxies
• High dense gas fraction in a gas-rich star-forming galaxy at z = 1.2
• Properties of free-free, dust, and CO emissions in the starbursts of blue compact dwarf galaxies
• Atomic and Molecular Gas Components in Spiral Galaxies of the Virgo Cluster
• Dynamics of Molecular Gas in the Central Region of the Quasar IZwicky1
• Toward a better understanding of the mid-infrared emission in the LMC
• A detailed view of a Molecular Cloud in the far outer disk of M33
• Probing the cold and warm molecular gas in the Whirlpool Galaxy: Herschel SPIRE-FTS Observations of the central region of M51 (NGC 5194)
• Evolution of Cosmic Molecular Gas Mass Density From z ~ 0 to z = 1 -1.5
• SEEDisCS II. Molecular gas in galaxy clusters and their large scale structure: low gas fraction galaxies, the case of CL1301.7$-$1139
• Gathering dust: A galaxy-wide study of dust emission from cloud complexes in NGC 300
• Effects of dust grain size distribution on the abundances of CO and H${}_2$ in galaxy evolution
• The relation between mid-plane pressure and molecular hydrogen in galaxies: Environmental dependence
• NOEMA Observations of a Molecular Cloud in the low-metallicity Galaxy Kiso 5639
• $\text{slick}$: Modeling a Universe of Molecular Line Luminosities in Hydrodynamical Simulations
• Atomic Carbon [CI]${(}^3{P}_1{-}^3{P}_0)$ Mapping of the Nearby Galaxy M83
• Stellar, Gas, and Dust Emission of Star Forming Galaxies out to z~2
• Metallicity-PAH Relation of MIR-selected Star-forming Galaxies in AKARI North Ecliptic Pole-wide Survey
• Down but not out: properties of the molecular gas in the stripped Virgo Cluster early-type galaxy NGC4526
• Revisiting the dust properties in the molecular clouds of the Large Magellanic Cloud
• ALMA Observations of the Molecular Clouds in NGC 625
• Gas-to-dust ratio in massive star-forming galaxies at z~1.4
• Constraint on the Gas-to-Dust Ratio in Massive Star-Forming Galaxies at z~1.4
• Molecular Cloud Matching in CO and Dust in M33 I. High-Resolution Hydrogen Column Density Maps from Herschel
• Gas properties as a function of environment in the proto-supercluster Hyperion at z ~ 2.45
• An analysis of the FIR/RADIO Continuum Correlation in the Small Magellanic Cloud
• Understanding the Universal Dust Attenuation Scaling Relation of Star-Forming Galaxies
• Modelling Mechanical Heating in Star-Forming Galaxies: CO and 13CO Line Ratios as Sensitive Probes
• The ISM scaling relations using inner HI and an application of estimating dust mass
• Early Science with the Large Millimeter Telescope: discovery of the 12CO(1-0) emission line in the ring galaxy, VIIZw466
• ALMA FACTS. II. Large Scale Variations in the 12CO(J=2-1) to 12CO(J=1-0) Line Ratio in Nearby Galaxies
• The unusual ISM in Blue and Dusty Gas Rich Galaxies (BADGRS)
• Dust Properties of Clumpy Disc Galaxies at z~1.3 with Herschel-SPIRE
• Estimating lifetimes of uv-selected massive galaxies at $0.5\le z\le 2.5$ in the cosmos/ultravista field through clustering analyses
• Diversity of dwarf galaxy IR-submm emission patterns: CLUES from hydrodynamical simulations
• 12CO and 13CO observation of the low-metallicity dwarf galaxy DDO 154
• CU-JADE: A Method for Traversing Extinction Jumps along the Line of Sight
• Vz-GAL: Probing Cold Molecular Gas in Dusty Star-forming Galaxies at z=1-6
• Observations of cold gas and star formation in dwarf S0 galaxies
• A Search for Molecular Gas in the Host Galaxy of FRB 121102
• Deep kiloparsec view of the molecular gas in a massive star-forming galaxy at cosmic noon
• A Catalog of Stellar and Dust Properties for 500,000 Stars in the Southwest Bar of the Small Magellanic Cloud
• CO-to-H${}_2$ conversion factor and grain size distribution through the analysis of ${\alpha }_{\mathrm{CO}}$-$q_{\mathrm{PAH}}$ relation
• Measuring the gas reservoirs in $10^8<$ M${}_{\star }<10^{11}$ M${}_{\odot }$ galaxies at $1\le z\le 3$
• Bright [CII]158$\mu$m Streamers as a Beacon for Giant Galaxy Formation in SPT2349$-$56 at $z=4.3$
• Infrared Galaxies in the Field of the Massive Cluster Abell S1063: Discovery of a Luminous Kiloparsec-Sized HII Region in a Gravitationally Lensed IR-Luminous Galaxy at $z=0.6$
• Molecular gas budget of strongly magnified low-mass star-forming galaxies at cosmic noon
• GRB host galaxies with strong H${}_2$ absorption: CO-dark molecular gas at the peak of cosmic star formation
• Tight correlation of star formation with [Ci] and CO lines across cosmic time
• Characterizing CO Emitters in the SSA22-AzTEC26 Field
• Theoretical considerations for star formation at low and high redshift
• The Nearby Evolved Stars Survey II: Constructing a volume-limited sample and first results from the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope
• Molecular Clouds at the Edge of the Galaxy II. Physical properties and scaling relations