The Evolution of L and T Dwarfs in Color-Magnitude Diagrams

Abstract

We present new evolution sequences for very low mass stars, brown dwarfs and giant planets and use them to explore a variety of influences on the evolution of these objects. We compare our results with previous work and discuss the causes of the differences and argue for the importance of the surface boundary condition provided by atmosphere models including clouds. The L- to T-type ultracool dwarf transition can be accommodated within the Ackerman & Marley (2001) cloud model by varying the cloud sedimentation parameter. We develop a simple model for the evolution across the L/T transition. By combining the evolution calculation and our atmosphere models, we generate colors and magnitudes of synthetic populations of ultracool dwarfs in the field and in galactic clusters. We focus on near infrared color- magnitude diagrams (CMDs) and on the nature of the ``second parameter'' that is responsible for the scatter of colors along the Teff sequence. Variations in metallicity and cloud parameters, unresolved binaries and possibly a relatively young population all play a role in defining the spread of brown dwarfs along the cooling sequence. We find that the transition from cloudy L dwarfs to cloudless T dwarfs slows down the evolution and causes a pile up of substellar objects in the transition region, in contradiction with previous studies. We apply the same model to the Pleiades brown dwarf sequence. Taken at face value, the Pleiades data suggest that the L/T transition occurs at lower Teff for lower gravity objects. The simulated populations of brown dwarfs also reveal that the phase of deuterium burning produces a distinctive feature in CMDs that should be detectable in ~50-100 Myr old clusters.

arXiv commentAccepted for publication in the ApJ. 52 pages including 20 figures

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• The JWST Weather Report from the Nearest Brown Dwarfs I: multi-period JWST NIRSpec + MIRI monitoring of the benchmark binary brown dwarf WISE 1049AB
• The Hawaii Infrared Parallax Program. III. 2MASS J0249-0557 c: A Wide Planetary-mass Companion to a Low-mass Binary in the beta Pic Moving Group
• Y dwarf Trigonometric Parallaxes from the Spitzer Space Telescope
• Retrieval Study of Brown Dwarfs Across the L-T Sequence
• A Search for L/T Transition Dwarfs With Pan-STARRS1 and WISE: Discovery of Seven Nearby Objects Including Two Candidate Spectroscopic Variables
• Dynamical Mass of the Young Substellar Companion HD 984 B
• The Impact of Mixing Treatments on Cloud Modelling in 3D Simulations of Hot Jupiters
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• Measuring the D/H Ratios of Exoplanets and Brown Dwarfs
• Cloud Atlas: Rotational Spectral Modulations and potential Sulfide Clouds in the Planetary-mass, Late T-type Companion Ross 458C
• Mapping Directly Imaged Giant Exoplanets
• The Nearest Isolated Member of the TW Hydrae Association is a Giant Planet Analog
• Photometric Monitoring of the Coldest Known Brown Dwarf with the Spitzer Space Telescope
• A Universal Cloud Composition on the Nightsides of Hot Jupiters
• Uniform Forward-Modeling Analysis of Ultracool Dwarfs. II. Atmospheric Properties of 55 Late-T Dwarfs
• X-SHYNE: X-shooter spectra of young exoplanet analogs. I. A medium-resolution 0.65-2.5$\mu \mathrm{m}$ one-shot spectrum of VHS\,1256-1257 b
• The First Near-Infrared Transmission Spectrum of HIP 41378 f, a Low-Mass Temperate Jovian World in a Multi-Planet System
• Colour-Magnitude Diagrams of Transiting Exoplanets. I - Systems with parallaxes
• A deep WISE search for very late type objects and the discovery of two halo/thick-disk T dwarfs: WISE 0013+0634 and WISE 0833+0052
• Considerations for Atmospheric Retrieval of High-Precision Brown Dwarf Spectra
• Uniform Forward-Modeling Analysis of Ultracool Dwarfs. I. Methodology and Benchmarking
• Nitrogen as a Tracer of Giant Planet Formation. I.: A Universal Deep Adiabatic Profile and Semi-analytical Predictions of Disequilibrium Ammonia Abundances in Warm Exoplanetary Atmospheres
• The ESO SupJup Survey I: Chemical and isotopic characterisation of the late L-dwarf DENIS J0255-4700 with CRIRES${}^{+}$
• Mass and period limits on the ringed companion transiting the young star J1407
• Cloud Atlas: Discovery of Rotational Spectral Modulations in a Low-mass, L-type Brown Dwarf Companion to a Star
• Discovery of a new Y dwarf: WISE J030449.03-270508.3
• Retrieval study of cool, directly imaged exoplanet 51 Eri b
• On the Detection of Exomoons Transiting Isolated Planetary-Mass Objects
• Methane in Analogs of Young Directly Imaged Exoplanets
• High Resolution Imaging of Very Low Mass Spectral Binaries: Three Resolved Systems and Detection of Orbital Motion in an L/T Transition Binary
• Cloud Atlas: High-Contrast Time-Resolved Observations of Planetary-Mass Companions
• 2MASS J13243553+6358281 is an Early T-Type Planetary-Mass Object in the AB Doradus Moving Group
• Community targets for JWST's early release science program: evaluation of WASP-63b
• Evolutionary models for ultracool dwarfs
• WISE2150-7520AB: A very low mass, wide co-moving brown dwarf system discovered through the citizen science project Backyard Worlds: Planet 9
• Hubble Space Telescope Imaging and Spectral Analysis of Two Brown Dwarf Binaries at the L Dwarf/T Dwarf Transition
• A Reanalysis of the Fundamental Parameters and Age of TRAPPIST-1
• Color Classification of Extrasolar Giant Planets: Prospects and Cautions
• The distance to the cool T9 brown dwarf ULAS J003402.77-005206.7
• Discovery of a Visual T-Dwarf Triple System and Binarity at the L/T Transition
• An Atmospheric Retrieval of the Brown Dwarf Gliese 229B
• Near-Infrared Spectroscopy of the Y0 WISEP J173835.52+273258.9 and the Y1 WISE J035000.32-565830.2: the Importance of Non-Equilibrium Chemistry
• Cloud Atlas: Weak color modulations due to rotation in the planetary-mass companion GU Psc b and 11 other brown dwarfs
• Multiple Scattering Polarization of Substellar-mass Objects : T-dwarfs
• The discovery of a T6.5 subdwarf
• The cool brown dwarf Gliese 229 B is a close binary
• A Condensation-Coalescence Cloud Model for Exoplanetary Atmospheres: Formulation and Test Applications to Terrestrial and Jovian Clouds
• TOI-1231 b: A Temperate, Neptune-Sized Planet Transiting the Nearby M3 Dwarf NLTT 24399
• A New Parallax Measurement for the Coldest Known Brown Dwarf
• Limits on the Mass and Initial Entropy of 51 Eri b from Gaia EDR3 Astrometry
• A New Method for Finding Nearby White Dwarf Exoplanets and Detecting Biosignatures
• Characterizing the Cool KOIs. VII. Refined Physical Properties of the Transiting Brown Dwarf LHS 6343 C
• A new take on the low-mass brown dwarf companions on wide-orbits in Upper-Scorpius
• Supervised Machine Learning for Intercomparison of Model Grids of Brown Dwarfs: Application to GJ 570D and the Epsilon Indi B Binary System
• A nearby young M dwarf with a wide, possibly planetary-mass companion
• Jet Streams and Tracer Mixing in the Atmospheres of Brown Dwarfs and Isolated Young Giant Planets
• Spatially Resolved Modeling of Optical Albedos for a Sample of Six Hot Jupiters
• The absolute age of the globular cluster M15 using near-infrared adaptive optics images from PISCES/LBT
• Towards Robust Atmospheric Retrieval on Cloudy L Dwarfs: The Impact of Thermal and Abundance Profile Assumptions
• GPI Spectroscopy of the Mass, Age, and Metallicity Benchmark Brown Dwarf HD 4747 B
• Atmospheric Monitoring and Precise Spectroscopy of the HR 8799 Planets with SCExAO/CHARIS
• The McDonald Accelerating Stars Survey (MASS): White Dwarf Companions Accelerating the Sun-like Stars 12 Psc and HD 159062
• Individual, Model-Independent Masses of the Closest Known Brown Dwarf Binary to the Sun
• Orbital and spectral characterization of the benchmark T-type brown dwarf HD 19467B
• $K2$ Ultracool Dwarfs Survey. VI. White light superflares observed on an L5 dwarf and flare rates of L dwarfs
• Early Results from VLT-SPHERE: Long-Slit Spectroscopy of 2MASS 0122-2439B, a Young Companion Near the Deuterium Burning Limit
• COSMOS2020: UV selected galaxies at $z\ge 7.5$
• Properties of the T8.5 Dwarf Wolf 940 B
• Cloud Atlas: Variability in and out of the Water Band in the Planetary-mass HD 203030B Points to Cloud Sedimentation in Low-gravity L Dwarfs
• Searching for sub-stellar companion into the LkCa15 proto-planetary disk
• Exploring H${}_2$O Prominence in Reflection Spectra of Cool Giant Planets
• NGTS-19b : A high mass transiting brown dwarf in a 17-day eccentric orbit
• Precise Dynamical Masses of Epsilon Indi Ba and Bb: Evidence of Slowed Cooling at the L/T Transition
• Improved radius determinations for the transiting brown dwarf population in the era of Gaia and TESS
• Infrared Spectroscopy of free-floating planet candidates in Upper Scorpius and Ophiuchus
• Tentative Evidence for Water Vapor in the Atmosphere of the Neptune-Size Exoplanet HD 106315 c
• Detecting Exomoons Around Self-luminous Giant Exoplanets Through Polarization
• The discovery of the T8.5 dwarf UGPS J0521+3640
• Resolved Spectroscopy of M Dwarf/L Dwarf Binaries. IV. Discovery of an M9 + L6 BInary Separated by Over 100 AU
• A dusty benchmark brown dwarf near the ice line of HD 72946
• A Rotation Rate for the Planetary-Mass Companion DH Tau b
• An eccentric Brown Dwarf eclipsing an M dwarf
• The Collapse of the Wien Tail in the Coldest Brown Dwarf? Hubble Space Telescope Near-Infrared Photometry of WISE J085510.83-071442.5
• Kepler Monitoring of an L Dwarf II. Clouds with Multiyear Lifetimes
• The TESS Phase Curve of KELT-1b Suggests a High Dayside Albedo
• Kepler-503b: An Object at the Hydrogen Burning Mass Limit Orbiting a Subgiant Star
• The McDonald Accelerating Stars Survey (MASS): Discovery of a Long-Period Substellar Companion Orbiting the Old Solar Analog HD 47127
• On the existence of brown dwarfs more massive than the hydrogen burning limit
• 3.8um Imaging of 400-600K Brown Dwarfs and Orbital Constraints for WISEP J045853.90+643452.6AB
• Photometric follow-up of 43 new eclipsing white dwarf plus main-sequence binaries from the ZTF survey
• TOI-2119: A transiting brown dwarf orbiting an active M-dwarf from NASA's TESS mission
• The first retrieval of a substellar subdwarf: A cloud-free SDSS J125637.13-022452.4
• A Wide Planetary Mass Companion Discovered Through the Citizen Science Project Backyard Worlds: Planet 9
• Spectroscopic follow-up of L- and T-type proper-motion member candidates in the Pleiades
• TOI 694 b and TIC 220568520 b: Two Low-Mass Companions Near the Hydrogen Burning Mass Limit Orbiting Sun-like Stars
• The First Brown Dwarf/Planetary-Mass Object in the 32 Orionis Group
• The Oceanus Moving Group: A New 500 Myr-Old Host for the Nearest Brown Dwarf
• PSYM-WIDE: a survey for large-separation planetary-mass companions to late spectral type members of young moving groups
• Surveying Nearby Brown Dwarfs with HGCA: Direct Imaging Discovery of a Faint, High-Mass Brown Dwarf Orbiting HD 176535 A
• Cloud Atlas: High-precision HST/WFC3/IR Time-Resolved Observations of Directly-Imaged Exoplanet HD106906b
• On the absolute age of the metal-rich globular M71 (NGC 6838): I. optical photometry
• ESPRESSO Mass determination of TOI-263b: An extreme inhabitant of the brown dwarf desert
• A wide planetary-mass companion to a young low-mass brown dwarf in Ophiuchus
• Sub-stellar Companions of Intermediate-mass Stars with CoRoT: CoRoT-34b, CoRoT-35b, and CoRoT-36b
• Resolved Spectroscopy of the T8.5 and Y0-0.5 Binary WISEPC J121756.91+162640.2AB
• The Prototypical Young L/T-Transition Dwarf HD 203030B Likely Has Planetary Mass
• Polarised radio pulsations from a new T dwarf binary
• Evidence for SiO cloud nucleation in the rogue planet PSO J318
• Microphysics of Water Clouds in the Atmospheres of Y Dwarfs and Temperate Giant Planets
• HIP 33609 b: An Eccentric Brown Dwarf Transiting a V=7.3 Rapidly Rotating B-Star
• Characterising brown dwarf companions with IRDIS long-slit spectroscopy: HD 1160 B and HD 19467 B
• Variable Irradiation on 1D Cloudless Eccentric Exoplanet Atmospheres
• Methane band and Spitzer mid-IR imaging of L and T dwarf candidates in the Pleiades
• Planets Around Low-Mass Stars (PALMS). II. A Low-Mass Companion to the Young M Dwarf GJ 3629 Separated By 0.2"
• Direct-imaging Discovery of a Substellar Companion Orbiting the Accelerating Variable Star, HIP 39017
• Cloud Atlas: Unraveling the vertical cloud structure with the time-series spectrophotometry of an unusually red brown dwarf
• 2MASS J03105986+1648155AB - A new binary at the L/T transition
• Leaning Sideways: VHS 1256-1257 b is a Super-Jupiter with a Uranus-like Obliquity
• Understanding Fundamental Properties and Atmospheric Features of Subdwarfs via a Case Study of SDSS J125637.13-022452.4
• The GeMS/GSAOI Galactic Globular Cluster Survey (G4CS) I: A Pilot Study of the stellar populations in NGC 2298 and NGC 3201
• HST/WFC3 Complete Phase-resolved Spectroscopy of White Dwarf-Brown Dwarf Binaries WD 0137 and EPIC 2122
• Characterization of the known T type dwarfs towards the Sigma Orionis cluster
• Near-infrared photometry of WISE J085510.74$-$071442.5
• Deep near-IR observations of the Globular Cluster M4: Hunting for Brown Dwarfs
• Dynamical Mass of the Young Brown Dwarf Companion PZ Tel B
• WISEP J060738.65+242953.4: A Nearby. Pole-On L8 Brown Dwarf with Radio Emission
• An Age Constraint for the Very Low-Mass Stellar/Brown Dwarf Binary 2MASS J03202839-0446358AB
• VLTI/GRAVITY Observations and Characterization of the Brown Dwarf Companion HD 72946 B
• Benchmarking Substellar Evolutionary Models Using New Age Estimates for HD 4747 B and HD 19467 B
• The TEMPO Survey I: Predicting Yields of the Transiting Exosatellites, Moons, and Planets from a 30-day Survey of Orion with the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope
• Near-infrared Detection of WD 0806-661 B with the Hubble Space Telescope
• The JWST Weather Report: retrieving temperature variations, auroral heating, and static cloud coverage on SIMP-0136
• Ultracool Dwarfs Observed with the Spitzer Infrared Spectrograph. I. An Accurate Look at the L-to-T Transition at $\sim$300 Myr from Optical through Mid-infrared Spectrophotometry
• High-contrast observations of brown dwarf companion HR 2562 B with the vector Apodizing Phase Plate coronagraph
• DE0823$-$49 is a juvenile binary brown dwarf at 20.7 pc
• A search for lithium in metal-poor L dwarfs
• A Late-type L Dwarf at 11 pc Hiding in the Galactic Plane Characterized Using Gaia DR2
• Revealing the Vertical Cloud Structure of a young low-mass Brown Dwarf, an analog to the beta-Pictoris b directly-imaged exoplanet, through Keck I/MOSFIRE spectro-photometric variability
• Search for planets around stars with wide brown dwarfs
• The $\text{Gaia}$ Ultra-Cool Dwarf Sample $-$ III: Seven new multiple systems containing at least one $\text{Gaia}$ DR2 ultra-cool dwarf
• The ESO SupJup Survey VII: Clouds and line asymmetries in CRIRES${}^{+}$ J-band spectra of the Luhman 16 binary
• Modeling Polarization Signals from Cloudy Brown Dwarfs: Luhman 16 A and B in Three Dimensions
• Deep $z$-band observations of the coolest Y dwarf
• Properties of ultra-cool dwarfs with Gaia. An assessment of the accuracy for the temperature determination
• Beyond the Local Volume. II. Population Scaleheights and Ages of Ultracool Dwarfs in Deep HST/WFC3 Parallel Fields
• The compositions of the HR 8799 planets reflect accretion of both solids and metal-enriched gas
• Jupiter-like uniform metal enrichment in a system of multiple giant exoplanets
• Multi-Epoch VLBI of L Dwarf Binary 2MASS J0746+2000AB: Precise Mass Measurements and Confirmation of Radio Emission from Both Components
• On the use of the main sequence knee (saddle) to measure globular cluster ages
• MIRI-LRS spectrum of a cold exoplanet around a white dwarf: water, ammonia, and methane measurements
• A low-mass triple system with a wide L/T transition brown dwarf component: NLTT 51469AB/SDSS 2131-0119
• Impacts of Water Latent Heat on the Thermal Structure of Ultra-Cool Objects: Brown Dwarfs and Free-Floating Planets
• Impact of distance determinations on Galactic structure. II. Old tracers
• Following the Lithium: Tracing Li-bearing Molecules Across Age, Mass, and Gravity in Brown Dwarfs
• The puzzle of the formation of T8 dwarf Ross 458c
• Direct Imaging discovery of a second planet candidate around the possibly transiting planet host CVSO 30
• Benchmark Transiting Brown Dwarf LHS 6343 C: Spitzer Secondary Eclipse Observations Yield Brightness Temperature and mid-T Spectral Class
• The TRENDS High-contrast Imaging Survey. VIII. Compendium of Benchmark Objects
• Photo-polarimetric characteristics of brown dwarfs, Part I: uniform cloud decks
• A Comparative L-dwarf Sample Exploring the Interplay Between Atmospheric Assumptions and Data Properties
• Polarimetric Detection of Exoplanets Transiting T- and L- Brown Dwarfs
• Latest news on the Physics of Brown dwarfs
• Mapping the Skies of Ultracool Worlds: Detecting Storms and Spots with Extremely Large Telescopes
• CWISE J014611.20-050850.0AB: The Widest Known Brown Dwarf Binary in the Field
• Parallaxes and Infrared Photometry of three Y0 dwarfs
• Microphysical Prescriptions for Parameterized Water Cloud Formation on Ultra-cool Substellar Objects
• 2MASS J11151597+1937266: A Young, Dusty, Isolated, Planetary-Mass Object with a Potential Wide Stellar Companion
• PICASO 4.0: Clouds and Photochemistry in Climate Models of Brown Dwarfs and Exoplanets
• LSST Survey Strategies and Brown Dwarf Parallaxes
• HST astrometry of the closest Brown Dwarfs -- II. Improved parameters and constraints on a third body
• COol Companions ON Ultrawide orbiTS (COCONUTS). III. A Very Red L6 Benchmark Brown Dwarf around a Young M5 Dwarf
• Confirming the least massive members of the Pleiades star cluster
• Detecting free-floating planets using water-depend colour terms in the next generation of infrared space-based surveys
• The Sonora Substellar Atmosphere Models VI. Red Diamondback: Extending Diamondback with SPHINX for Brown Dwarf Early Evolution
• A Search for Substellar Companions to the Two Nearest Brown Dwarf Systems
• An Asymmetric Eclipse Seen Towards the Pre-Main Sequence Binary System V928 Tau
• Detecting Massive Galaxies at High Redshift using the Dark Energy Survey
• High Spatial Resolution Thermal-Infrared Spectroscopy with ALES: Resolved Spectra of the Benchmark Brown Dwarf Binary HD 130948BC
• The $\text{MSG}$ model for cloudy substellar atmospheres: A grid of self-consistent substellar atmosphere models with microphysical cloud formation
• M dwarf stars in the light of (future) exoplanet searches
• Disentangling disc and atmospheric signatures of young brown dwarfs with JWST/NIRSpec
• The Impact of Irradiation on the Radius and Thermal Evolution of Transiting Brown Dwarfs
• Distinct Rotational Evolution of Giant Planets and Brown Dwarf Companions
• Informed systematic method to identify variable mid and late-T dwarfs
• $L$-band Spectra of Young Brown Dwarfs
• Reflected-light Phase Curves with PICASO: A Kepler-7b Case Study
• Tracing the Top-of-the-atmosphere and Vertical Cloud Structure of a fast-rotating late T-dwarf
• 2MASS J04435686+3723033 B: A Young Companion at the Substellar Boundary with Potential Membership in the $\beta$ Pictoris Moving Group
• Effects of Rotation on the Spectra of Brown Dwarfs
• Polarization of Rotationally Oblate Self-Luminous Exoplanets with Anisotropic Atmospheres
• The Sonora Brown Dwarf Atmosphere and Evolution Models I. Model Description and Application to Cloudless Atmospheres in Rainout Chemical Equilibrium
• Mapping atmospheric features of the planetary-mass brown dwarf SIMP 0136 with JWST NIRISS
• Near-infrared spectroscopic characterisation of Gaia ultra-cool dwarf candidates; Spectral types and peculiarities
• Diversity of Cold Worlds: A Near Complete Spectral Energy Distribution for 2MASS J04151954-0935066 using JWST
• K2 Discovery of a Circumsecondary Disk Transiting EPIC 220208795
• Probing Late-type T dwarf J-H Color Outliers for Signs of Age
• Time-resolved Optical Polarization Monitoring of the Most Variable Brown Dwarf
• A 1.48-2.48 $\mu$m R=28000 spectroscopic atlas of the L7.5 and T0.5 components of the nearest pair of brown dwarfs: Luhman 16AB
• UV Absorption by Silicate Cloud Precursors in Ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-178b
• The L dwarf/T dwarf transition: multiplicity, magnetic activity and mineral meteorology across the hydrogen burning limit
• Idealised 3D simulations of diabatically-forced Ledoux convection. Application to the atmosphere of hot rocky exoplanets
• Spectral analysis of two directly imaged benchmark L dwarf companions at the stellar-substellar boundary
• Obliquity Constraints on the Planetary-mass Companion HD 106906 b
• Effect of Dust Size on the Near-Infrared Spectra (1.0-5.0 $\mu$m) of Brown Dwarf Atmospheres
• The Gaia Ultracool Dwarf Sample -- IV. GTC/OSIRIS optical spectra of Gaia late-M and L dwarfs
• The Brown Dwarf Kinematics Project (BDKP). V. Radial and Rotational Velocities of T Dwarfs from Keck/NIRSPEC High-Resolution Spectroscopy
• Disk fraction among free-floating planetary-mass objects in Upper Scorpius
• Dynamics of Y Dwarf Atmospheres
• JWST high-contrast spectroscopy with speckle modelling: Atmospheric retrievals of the T dwarf companion HD 19467 B
• A Uniform Retrieval Analysis of Ultra-cool Dwarfs. IV. A Statistical Census from 50 Late-T Dwarfs
• Searching for Faint Comoving Companions to the $\alpha$ Centauri system in the VVV Survey Infrared Images
• SpeX Spectroscopy of Unresolved Very Low-Mass Binaries. I. Identification of Seventeen Candidate Binaries Straddling the L Dwarf/T Dwarf Transition
• 14 Her: a likely case of planet-planet scattering
• The GAPS Programme at TNG LXVIII. Characterization of the outer substellar companion around HD 72659 with a multi-technique approach
• Cloudy and Cloud-free Thermal Phase Curves with PICASO: Applications to WASP-43b
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• Panchromatic characterization of the Y0 brown dwarf WISEP J173835.52+273258.9 using JWST/MIRI
• JWST-TST High Contrast: First Direct Spectroscopy of GJ 504 b reveals Clouds and Possible Metal Enrichment
• Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, Roman Sees Where You Are: Predicting Exoplanet Transit Yields in the Rosette Nebula with the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope
• Next-generation Exo-REM atmospheric models: application to VHS 1256 b to emulate patchy clouds
• L-band Integral Field Spectroscopy of the HR 8799 Planetary System
• Substellar Hyades Candidates from the UKIRT Hemisphere Survey