Observational Signatures of Planets in Protoplanetary Disks I: Gaps Opened by Single and Multiple Young Planets in Disks

Abstract

It has been suggested that the gaps and cavities recently discovered in transitional disks are opened by planets. To explore this scenario, we combine two-dimensional two fluid (gas + particle) hydrodynamical calculations with three-dimensional Monte Carlo Radiative Transfer simulations, and study the observational signatures of gaps opened by one or several planets, making qualitative comparisons with observations. We find that a single planet as small as 0.2 MJ can produce a deep gap at millimeter (mm) wavelengths and almost no features at near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths, while multiple planets can open up a few *10 AU wide common gap at both wavelengths. Both the contrast ratio of the gaps and the wavelength dependence of the gap sizes are broadly consistent with data. We also confirm previous results that NIR gap sizes may be smaller than mm gap sizes due to dust-gas coupling and radiative transfer effects. When viewed at a moderate inclination angle, a physically circular on-centered gap could appear to be off-centered from the star due to shadowing. Planet-induced spiral arms are more apparent at NIR than at mm wavelengths. Overall, our results suggest that the planet-opening-gap scenario is a promising way to explain the origin of the transitional disks. Finally, inspired by the recent ALMA release of the image of the HL Tau disk, we show that multiple narrow gaps, well separated by bright rings, can be opened by 0.2 MJ planets soon after their formation in a relatively massive disk.

25 pages, 13 figures, 4 tables, ApJ in press

References in corpus (30)

• Protoplanetary Disk Structures in Ophiuchus
• Gas- and dust evolution in protoplanetary disks
• Particle Stirring in Turbulent Gas Disks: Including Orbital Oscillations
• Ring shaped dust accumulation in transition disks
• Dust filtration at gap edges: Implications for the spectral energy distributions of discs with embedded planets
• Structure and evolution of pre-main sequence circumstellar disks
• On the Diversity of the Taurus Transitional Disks: UX Tau A & Lk Ca 15
• Direct Imaging of Fine Structures in Giant Planet Forming Regions of the Protoplanetary Disk around AB Aurigae
• Dust dynamics during protoplanetary disc clearing
• LkH$\alpha$ 330: Evidence for dust clearing through resolved submillimeter imaging
• Dust flow in gas disks in the presence of embedded planets
• Variable protostellar accretion with episodic bursts
• Accreting Circumplanetary Disks: Observational Signatures
• Discovery of a Companion Candidate in the HD169142 Transition Disk and the Possibility of Multiple Planet Formation
• Constraints on resonant-trapping for two planets embedded in a protoplanetary disc
• Can grain growth explain transition disks?
• Dust Trapping by Vortices in Transitional Disks: Evidence for Non-ideal MHD Effects in Protoplanetary Disks
• Effects of dust feedback on vortices in protoplanetary disks
• Subaru Imaging of Asymmetric Features in a Transitional Disk in Upper Scorpius
• Gas and dust structures in protoplanetary disks hosting multiple planets
• Speckle Suppression Through Dual Imaging Polarimetry, and a Ground-Based Image of the HR 4796A Circumstellar Disk
• NIR Spectroscopy of the HAeBe Star HD 100546: III. Further Evidence of an Orbiting Companion?
• Comparison of the dust and gas radial structure in the transition disk [PZ99] J160421.7-213028
• Shadows and cavities in protoplanetary disks: HD163296, HD141569A, and HD150193A in polarized light
• Planet gaps in the dust layer of 3D protoplanetary disks. II. Observability with ALMA
• Accreting planets as dust dams in `transition' discs
• Tracing large-scale structures in circumstellar disks with ALMA
• Signatures of Planet Formation in Gravitationally Unstable Disks
• Planet Shadows in Protoplanetary Disks. II: Observable Signatures
• Surface Geometry of Protoplanetary Disks Inferred From Near-Infrared Imaging Polarimetry

Cited by in corpus (201)

• Sintering-induced Dust Ring Formation in Protoplanetary Disks: Application to the HL Tau Disk
• On planet formation in HL Tau
• Three radial gaps in the disk of TW Hydrae imaged with SPHERE
• The Structure of Spiral Shocks Excited by Planetary-mass Companions
• Multiple Disk Gaps and Rings Generated by a Single Super-Earth
• The minimum mass of detectable planets in protoplanetary discs and the derivation of planetary masses from high resolution observations
• Dust depleted inner disks in a large sample of transition disks through long-baseline ALMA observations
• Molecules with ALMA at Planet-forming Scales (MAPS) V: CO gas distributions
• The Eccentric Cavity, Triple Rings, Two-Armed Spirals, and Double Clumps of the MWC 758 Disk
• The Disk Substructures at High Angular Resolution Project (DSHARP): III. Spiral Structures in the Millimeter Continuum of the Elias 27, IM Lup, and WaOph 6 Disks
• Nine localised deviations from Keplerian rotation in the DSHARP circumstellar disks: Kinematic evidence for protoplanets carving the gaps
• Early Planet Formation in Embedded Disks (eDisk). I. Overview of the Program and First Results
• Thresholds for Particle Clumping by the Streaming Instability
• Protoplanetary disk rings and gaps across ages and luminosities
• CO and dust properties in the TW Hya disk from high-resolution ALMA observations
• Mass constraint for a planet in a protoplanetary disk from the gap width
• A Multi-Ringed, Modestly-Inclined Protoplanetary Disk around AA Tau
• Protoplanetary Disk Properties in the Orion Nebula Cluster: Initial Results from Deep, High-Resolution ALMA Observations
• Can dead zones create structures like a transition disk?
• The formation of rings and gaps in magnetically coupled disk-wind systems: ambipolar diffusion and reconnection
• Dust Density Distribution and Imaging Analysis of Different Ice Lines in Protoplanetary Disks
• The Ophiuchus DIsc Survey Employing ALMA (ODISEA)-III: the evolution of substructures in massive discs at 3-5 au resolution
• What is the Mass of a Gap-Opening Planet?
• Fingerprints of giant planets in the photospheres of Herbig stars
• Multiple Gaps in the Disk of the Class I Protostar GY 91
• Modeling Dust Emission of HL Tau Disk Based on Planet-Disk Interactions
• Non-negative Matrix Factorization: Robust Extraction of Extended Structures
• Multiple Disk Gaps and Rings Generated by a Single Super-Earth: II. Spacings, Depths, and Number of Gaps, with Application to Real Systems
• Direct imaging of the water snow line at the time of planet formation using two ALMA continuum bands
• The VLA view of the HL Tau Disk - Disk Mass, Grain Evolution, and Early Planet Formation
• Spiral Arms in Gravitationally Unstable Protoplanetary Disks as Imaged in Scattered Light
• Dust unveils the formation of a mini-Neptune planet in a protoplanetary ring
• On the Commonality of 10-30AU Sized Axisymmetric Dust Structures in Protoplanetary Disks
• Inferring Planet Mass from Spiral Structures in Protoplanetary Disks
• An M Dwarf Companion and Its Induced Spiral Arms in the HD 100453 Protoplanetary Disk
• An ALMA survey of DCN/H${}^{13}$CN and DCO${}^{+}$/H${}^{13}$CO${}^{+}$ in protoplanetary disks
• Cometary ices in forming protoplanetary disc midplanes
• Scattered light images of spiral arms in marginally gravitationally unstable discs with an embedded planet
• The circumstellar disk HD169142: gas, dust and planets acting in concert?
• Circumstellar Disks of the Most Vigorously Accreting Young Stars
• Dust trapping by spiral arms in gravitationally unstable protostellar discs
• The VLA/ALMA Nascent Disk and Multiplicity (VANDAM) Survey of Orion Protostars. III. Substructures in Protostellar Disks
• Spiral Arms in Disks: Planets or Gravitational Instability?
• HL Tau disk in HCO+ (3-2) and (1-0) with ALMA: gas density, temperature, gap, and one-arm spiral
• The depletion of water during dispersal of planet-forming disk regions
• Two mechanisms for dust gap opening in protoplanetary discs
• Ring formation and dust dynamics in wind-driven protoplanetary discs: global simulations
• The origin and evolution of transition discs: successes, problems and open questions
• Investigation of the inner structures around HD169142 with VLT/SPHERE
• Inferring giant planets from ALMA millimeter continuum and line observations in (transition) disks
• New constraints on turbulence and embedded planet mass in the HD 163296 disk from planet-disk hydrodynamic simulations
• Perturbers: SPHERE detection limits to planetary-mass companions in protoplanetary disks
• Hubble Space Telescope UV and H$\alpha$ Measurements of the Accretion Excess Emission from the Young Giant Planet PDS 70 b
• How Spirals and Gaps Driven by Companions in Protoplanetary Disks Appear in Scattered Light at Arbitrary Viewing Angles
• Signatures of Gravitational Instability in Resolved Images of Protostellar Disks
• Spontaneous ring formation in wind-emitting accretion discs
• Peering into the Giant Planet Forming Region of the TW Hydrae Disk with the Gemini Planet Imager
• The Sizes and Depletions of the Dust and Gas Cavities in the Transitional Disk J160421.7-213028
• Nonsticky Ice at the Origin of the Uniformly Polarized Submillimeter Emission from the HL Tau Disk
• A Tale of Planet Formation: From Dust to Planets
• The formation of rings and gaps in wind-launching non-ideal MHD disks: three-dimensional simulations
• Spatial segregation of dust grains in transition disks. SPHERE observations of 2MASS J16083070-3828268 and RXJ1852.3-3700
• Disk Masses for Embedded Class I Protostars in the Taurus Molecular Cloud
• ALMA reveals the anatomy of the mm-sized dust and molecular gas in the HD 97048 disk
• Dynamical Stability of Imaged Planetary Systems in Formation: Application to HL Tau
• Shallow Cavities in Multiple-Planet Systems
• How do giant planetary cores shape the dust disk? HL Tau system
• Rings and gaps produced by variable magnetic disk winds and avalanche accretion streams: I. Axisymmetric resistive MHD simulations
• Growing and Trapping Pebbles with Fragile Collisions of Particles in Protoplanetary Disks
• Rings and gaps in protoplanetary disks: planets or snowlines?
• Molecules with ALMA at Planet-forming Scales (MAPS) XI: CN and HCN as Tracers of Photochemistry in Disks
• WL 17: A Young Embedded Transition Disk
• GW Ori: Interactions Between a Triple-star System and its Circumtriple Disk in Action
• Gas Gaps in the Protoplanetary Disk around the Young Protostar HL Tau
• The effects of disk self-gravity and radiative cooling on the formation of gaps and spirals by young planets
• On the planetary interpretation of multiple gaps and rings in protoplanetary disks seen by ALMA
• Linear growth of streaming instability in pressure bumps
• A ring-like concentration of mm-sized particles in Sz 91
• A Spatially Resolved AU-scale Inner Disk around DM Tau
• Observability of Forming Planets and their Circumplanetary Disks I. -- Parameter Study for ALMA
• The Orbit of the Companion to HD 100453A: Binary-Driven Spiral Arms in a Protoplanetary Disk
• Non-ideal MHD simulation of HL Tau disk: formation of rings
• Gas density perturbations induced by forming planet(s) in the AS 209 protoplanetary disk as seen with ALMA
• Gas temperature structure across transition disk cavities
• Magnetically Induced Disk Winds and Transport in the HL Tau Disk
• Impacts of dust feedback on a dust ring induced by a planet in a protoplanetary disk
• Thermal Infrared Imaging of MWC 758 with the Large Binocular Telescope: Planetary Driven Spiral Arms?
• Detectability of embedded protoplanets from hydrodynamical simulations
• Integration of Particle-Gas Systems with Stiff Mutual Drag Interaction
• ALMA Reveals a Misaligned Inner Gas Disk inside the Large Cavity of a Transitional Disk
• New constraints on the disk characteristics and companion candidates around T Cha with VLT/SPHERE
• Stability and Occurrence Rate Constraints on the Planetary Sculpting Hypothesis for "Transitional" Disks
• Three-dimensional Global Simulations of Type-II Planet-disk Interaction with a Magnetized Disk Wind: I. Magnetic Flux Concentration and Gap Properties
• Puffed up Edges of Planet-opened Gaps in Protoplanetary Disks. I. hydrodynamic simulations
• The properties of the inner disk around HL Tau: Multi-wavelength modeling of the dust emission
• exoALMA V: Gaseous Emission Surfaces and Temperature Structures
• Pebble drift and planetesimal formation in protoplanetary discs with embedded planets
• The PDS 66 Circumstellar Disk as seen in Polarized Light with the Gemini Planet Imager
• Accretion bursts in magnetized gas-dust protoplanetary disks
• The Planetary Luminosity Problem: "Missing Planets" and the Observational Consequences of Episodic Accretion
• Searching for proto-planets with MUSE
• The temporal requirements of directly observing self-gravitating spiral waves in protoplanetary discs with ALMA
• A high resolution mid-infrared survey of water emission from protoplanetary disks
• How to make giant planets via pebble accretion
• Gravitoviscous protoplanetary disks with a dust component. II. Spatial distribution and growth of dust in a clumpy disk
• ALMA chemical survey of disk-outflow sources in Taurus (ALMA-DOT): I. CO, CS, CN, and H2CO around DG Tau B
• Observational Signatures of Planets in Protoplanetary Disks: Planet-Induced Line Broadening in Gaps
• The Irradiation Instability of Protoplanetary Disks
• 1000 AU Exterior Arcs Connected to the Protoplanetary Disk around HL Tau
• First detection of orbital motion for HD 106906 b: A wide-separation exoplanet on a Planet Nine-like orbit
• PPDONet: Deep Operator Networks for Fast Prediction of Steady-State Solutions in Disk-Planet Systems
• Subaru/HiCIAO $H{K}_{\mathrm{s}}$ imaging of LkH$\alpha$ 330 - multi-band detection of the gap and spiral-like structures
• The Observability Of Vortex-Driven Spiral Arms In Protoplanetary Disk: Basic Spiral Properties
• Searching for Giant Exoplanets around M-dwarf Stars (GEMS) I: Survey Motivation
• Formation of Dust Rings and Gaps in Non-ideal MHD Disks Through Meridional Gas Flows
• The Evolution of Inner Disk Gas in Transition Disks
• A "Rosetta Stone" for protoplanetary disks: The synergy of multi-wavelength observations
• Substructures in Compact Disks of the Taurus Star-forming Region
• Meso-scale Instability Triggered by Dust Feedback in Dusty Rings: Origin and Observational Implications
• ALMA Band 6 high-resolution observations of the transitional disk around SY Cha
• Formation of Terrestrial Planets
• New constraints on the dust and gas distribution in the LkCa 15 disk from ALMA
• The Planet Formation Imager
• Modeling the nonaxisymmetric structure in the HD 163296 disk with planet-disk interaction
• Pebble accretion in class 0/I YSOs as a possible pathway for early planet formation
• Influences of three-dimensional gas flow induced by protoplanets on pebble accretion --$\mathrm{I}$. shear regime
• The role of the drag force in the gravitational stability of dusty planet-forming disc -- II. Numerical simulations
• Eccentric gap induced by a super-Jupiter mass planet
• Efficiently Imaging Accreting Protoplanets from Space: Reference Star Differential Imaging of the PDS 70 Planetary System using the HST/WFC3 Archival PSF Library
• Multi-wavelength observations of protoplanetary discs as a proxy for the gas disc mass
• On the Dust Signatures Induced by Eccentric Super-Earths in Protoplanetary Disks
• Physical and Chemical Conditions of the Protostellar Envelope and the Protoplanetary Disk in HL Tau
• Observing protoplanetary discs with the Square Kilometre Array -- I. Characterising pebble substructure caused by forming planets
• The ALMA survey to Resolve exoKuiper belt Substructures (ARKS) II. The radial structure of debris discs
• The effect of luminosity outbursts on the protoplanetary disk dynamics
• Morphological signatures induced by dust back reaction in discs with an embedded planet
• Early Planet Formation in Embedded Disks (eDisk) IX: High-resolution ALMA Observations of the Class 0 Protostar R CrA IRS5N and its surrounding
• High resolution observations of molecular emission lines toward the CI Tau proto-planetary disc: planet-carved gaps or shadowing?
• Migrating Low-Mass Planets in Inviscid Dusty Protoplanetary Discs
• Promoted Mass Growth of Multiple, Distant Giant Planets through Pebble Accretion and Planet-Planet Collision
• Wide Dust Gaps in Protoplanetary Disks Induced by Eccentric Planets: A Mass-Eccentricity Degeneracy
• The detection of dust gap-ring structure in the outer region of the CR Cha protoplanetary disk
• Observability of Forming Planets and their Circumplanetary Disks IV. -- with JWST & ELT
• A Resolved Near-Infrared Image of The Inner Cavity in The GM Aur Transitional Disk
• IRAS4A1: Multi-wavelength continuum analysis of a very flared Class 0 disk
• Architecture design study and technology roadmap for the Planet Formation Imager (PFI)
• PGNets: Planet mass prediction using convolutional neural networks for radio continuum observations of protoplanetary disks
• The Appearance of Vortices in Protoplanetary Disks in Near-Infrared Scattered Light
• Three-Dimensional Dust Stirring by a Giant Planet Embedded in a Protoplanetary Disk
• Clumpy accretion in pre-main-sequence stars as a source of perturbations in circumstellar disks
• DPNNet-2.0 Part I: Finding hidden planets from simulated images of protoplanetary disk gaps
• Ring Formation in Protoplanetary Disks Driven by an Eccentric Instability
• Influences of protoplanet-induced three-dimensional gas flow on pebble accretion $\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I}$. Headwind regime
• Combined Effects of Disk Winds and Turbulence-Driven Accretion on Planet Populations
• A Machine Learning model to infer planet masses from gaps observed in protoplanetary disks
• Turbulent Disk Viscosity and the Bifurcation of Planet Formation Histories
• Signatures of Hot Molecular Hydrogen Absorption from Protoplanetary Disks: I. Non-thermal Populations
• Simplified models of circumstellar morphologies for interpreting high-resolution data. Analytical approach to the equatorial density enhancement
• Improving Planet Detection with Disk Modeling: Keck/NIRC2 Imaging of the HD 34282 Single-armed Protoplanetary Disk
• Termination of an inward migration of a gap-opening planet triggered by dust feedback
• High-contrast imaging constraints on gas giant planet formation - The Herbig Ae/Be star opportunity
• An SMA Survey of Chemistry in Disks around Herbig AeBe Stars
• Signs of outflow feedback from a nearby young stellar object on the protostellar envelope around HL Tau
• Connecting HL Tau to the Observed Exoplanet Sample
• Using Bayesian Deep Learning to infer Planet Mass from Gaps in Protoplanetary Disks
• Circumstellar discs: What will be next?
• Model of a gap formed by a planet with fast inward migration
• ALMA observation of the protoplanetary disk around WW Cha: faint double-peaked ring and asymmetric structure
• The Mid-Infrared Polarization of the Herbig Ae Star WL 16: An Interstellar Origin?
• Feedback-limited Accretion: Variable Luminosity from Growing Planets
• SUBARU Near-Infrared Imaging Polarimetry of Misaligned Disks Around The SR24 Hierarchical Triple System
• Dust ring and gap formation by gas flow induced by low-mass planets embedded in protoplanetary disks $\mathrm{I}$. Steady-state model
• Shaping the CO snowline in protoplanetary disks
• Primordial dust rings, hidden dust mass, and the first generation of planetesimals in gravitationally unstable protoplanetary disks
• Substructures in protoplanetary disks imprinted by compact planetary systems
• Constraints on a Putative Planet Sculpting the V4046 Sagittarii Circumbinary Disk
• Modeling of CO ro-vibrational line emission of HD 141569
• On the origin of transition disk cavities: Pebble-accreting protoplanets vs Super-Jupiters
• Hiding in the Shadows II: Collisional Dust as Exoplanet Markers
• Investigating the Future Potential of an Upgraded ALMA to Image Planet Forming Disks at Sub-au Scales
• Simulations of thermal surface waves in a protoplanetary disk using 1+1D approximation
• Restoration of the Parameters of a Gas-Dust Disk Based on Its Synthetic Images
• Catastrophic events in protoplanetary disks and their observational manifestations
• An HST/STIS View of Protoplanetary Disks in Upper Scorpius: Observations of Three Young M-Stars
• A Brief History of the Study of Nearby Young Moving Groups and Their Members
• Planetesimal formation by the gravitational instability of dust ring structures
• Molecules with ALMA at Planet-forming Scales (MAPS) VIII: CO Gap in AS 209--Gas Depletion or Chemical Processing?
• Radial decoupling of small and large dust grains in the transitional disk RX J1615.3-3255
• The potential of combining MATISSE and ALMA observations: Constraining the structure of the innermost region in protoplanetary discs
• Models and Observational Predictions of Dust Traps in Protoplanetary Discs
• Dust Growth in ALMA Rings: II. Dusty Rossby Wave Instability
• Setting the Stage for the Planet Formation Imager
• Applying a Particle-only Model to the HL Tau Disk
• On the crystallinity of silicate dust in evolving protoplanetary disks due to magnetically driven disk winds
• Two Rings and a Marginally Resolved, 5 AU, Disk Around LkCa 15 Identified Via Near Infrared Sparse Aperture Masking Interferometry
• Constraining the mass of the planet(s) sculpting a disk cavity. The intriguing case of 2MASS J16042165-2130284
• A VLA View of the Flared, Asymmetric Disk Around the Class 0 Protostar L1527 IRS
• Gravitational instability in planet-forming discs
• Planet Formation Imager: Project Update
• Longterm Stability of Planetary Systems formed from a Transitional Disk
• Impact of Size-dependent Grain Temperature on Gas-Grain Chemistry in Protoplanetary Disks: the case of low mass star disks