Variable protostellar accretion with episodic bursts

Abstract

We present the latest development of the disk gravitational instability and fragmentation model, originally introduced by us to explain episodic accretion bursts in the early stages of star formation. Using our numerical hydrodynamics model with improved disk thermal balance and star-disk interaction, we computed the evolution of protostellar disks formed from the gravitational collapse of prestellar cores. In agreement with our previous studies, we find that cores of higher initial mass and angular momentum produce disks that are more favorable to gravitational instability and fragmentation, while a higher background irradiation and magnetic fields moderate the disk tendency to fragment. The protostellar accretion in our models is time-variable, thanks to the nonlinear interaction between different spiral modes in the gravitationally unstable disk, and can undergo episodic bursts when fragments migrate onto the star owing to the gravitational interaction with other fragments or spiral arms. Most bursts occur in the partly embedded Class I phase, with a smaller fraction taking place in the deeply embedded Class 0 phase and a few possible bursts in the optically visible Class II phase. The average burst duration and mean luminosity are found to be in good agreement with those inferred from observations of FU-Orionis-type eruptions. The model predicts the existence of two types of bursts: the isolated ones, showing well-defined luminosity peaks separated with prolonged periods (~ 10^4 yr) of quiescent accretion, and clustered ones, demonstrating several bursts occurring one after another during just a few hundred years. Finally, we estimate that 40\%--70\% of the star-forming cores can display bursts after forming a star-disk system.

18 pages, 13 figures, accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal

References in corpus (48)

• The Spitzer c2d Legacy Results: Star Formation Rates and Efficiencies; Evolution and Lifetimes
• Using FU Orionis Outbursts to Constrain Self-Regulated Protostellar Disk Models
• Interpreting Spectral Energy Distributions from Young Stellar Objects. I. A grid of 200,000 YSO model SEDs
• Dense Cores in Dark Clouds. XIV. N2H+(1-0) maps of dense cloud cores
• Theory of Low-Mass Stars and Substellar Objects
• Rosseland and Planck Mean Opacities for Protoplanetary Discs
• The Burst Mode of Protostellar Accretion
• Chaotic star formation and the alignment of stellar rotation with disc and planetary orbital axes
• Episodic accretion in magnetically layered protoplanetary discs
• The burst mode of accretion and disk fragmentation in the early embedded stages of star formation
• Clumps in the Outer Disk by Disk Instability: Why They are Initially Gas Giants and the Legacy of Disruption
• Non-steady Accretion in Protostars
• Episodic accretion at early stages of evolution of low mass stars and brown dwarfs: a solution for the observed luminosity spread in HR diagrams?
• Challenges in Forming Planets by Gravitational Instability: Disk Irradiation and Clump Migration, Accretion & Tidal Destructio
• Effect of episodic accretion on the structure and the lithium depletion of low-mass stars and planet-hosting stars
• Resolving the Luminosity Problem in Low-Mass Star Formation
• Evolutionary Signatures in the Formation of Low-Mass Protostars. II. Towards Reconciling Models and Observations
• Nonlinear Outcome of Gravitational Instability in Disks with Realistic Cooling
• Recurrent Planet Formation and Intermittent Protostellar Outflows Induced by Episodic Mass Accretion
• Observed luminosity spread in young clusters and Fu Ori stars: a unified picture
• On the convergence of the critical cooling timescale for the fragmentation of self-gravitating discs
• Formation of giant planets and brown dwarfs on wide orbits
• The importance of episodic accretion for low-mass star formation
• A systematic survey for eruptive young stellar objects using mid-infrared photometry
• Formation and survivability of giant planets on wide orbits
• A Hybrid Scenario for the Formation of Brown Dwarfs and Very Low Mass Stars
• Secular evolution of viscous and self-gravitating circumstellar discs
• The outburst and nature of two young eruptive stars in the North America/Pelican Nebula Complex
• ALMA Observations of the HH 46/47 Molecular Outflow
• A numerical simulation of a "super-Earth" core delivery from ~ 100 AU to ~ 8 AU
• Fu Ori outbursts and the planet-disc mass exchange
• An analytic column density profile to fit prestellar cores
• The role of disc self-gravity in the formation of protostars and protostellar discs
• Evolution of dust and ice features around FU Orionis objects
• CO2 Ice toward Low-luminosity, Embedded Protostars: Evidence for Episodic Mass Accretion via Chemical History
• Fundamental aspects of episodic accretion chemistry explored with single-point models
• The effect of a finite mass reservoir on the collapse of spherical isothermal clouds and the evolution of protostellar accretion
• Chemical Evolution in VeLLOs
• Embedded protostellar disks around (sub-)solar protostars. I. Disk structure and evolution
• Embedded protostellar disks around (sub-)solar stars. II. Disk masses, sizes, densities, temperatures and the planet formation perspective
• Variable accretion in the embedded phase of stellar evolution
• Fragmenting protostellar disks: properties and observational signatures
• The effect of episodic accretion on the phase transition of CO and CO_2 in low-mass star formation
• Keck Interferometer Observations of FU Orionis Objects
• The infrared properties of the new outburst star IRAS 05436-0007 in quiescent phase
• The MLP Distribution: A Modified Lognormal Power-Law Model for the Stellar Initial Mass Function
• Herschel far-infrared photometric monitoring of protostars in the Orion Nebula Cluster
• The Role for the Inner Disk in Mass Accretion to the Star in the Early Phase of Star Formation

Cited by in corpus (164)

• Observational Signatures of Planets in Protoplanetary Disks I: Gaps Opened by Single and Multiple Young Planets in Disks
• Disk-mediated accretion burst in a high-mass young stellar object
• Formation of Massive Primordial Stars: Intermittent UV Feedback with Episodic Mass Accretion
• The Disk Substructures at High Angular Resolution Project (DSHARP): III. Spiral Structures in the Millimeter Continuum of the Elias 27, IM Lup, and WaOph 6 Disks
• A Near-IR Spectroscopic Survey of FU Orionis Objects
• On the existence of accretion-driven bursts in massive star formation
• Formation and recondensation of complex organic molecules during protostellar luminosity outbursts
• A giant exoplanet orbiting a very low-mass star challenges planet formation models
• The SPOTS Models: A Grid of Theoretical Stellar Evolution Tracks and Isochrones For Testing The Effects of Starspots on Structure and Colors
• Decoupling of Magnetic Fields in Collapsing Protostellar Envelopes and Disk Formation and Fragmentation
• Episodic accretion: the interplay of infall and disc instabilities
• Spiral Arms in Gravitationally Unstable Protoplanetary Disks as Imaged in Scattered Light
• PRODIGE -- Envelope to disk with NOEMA I. A 3000 au streamer feeding a Class I protostar
• Forming spectroscopic massive proto-binaries by disk fragmentation
• The Herschel Orion Protostar Survey: Luminosity and Envelope Evolution
• Identification of Young Stellar Object candidates in the $Gaia$ DR2 x AllWISE catalogue with machine learning methods
• A population of eruptive variable protostars in VVV
• The early evolution of viscous and self-gravitating circumstellar disks with a dust component
• Circumstellar Disks of the Most Vigorously Accreting Young Stars
• Quantifying Variability of YSOs in the Mid-IR Over Six Years with NEOWISE
• A primordial origin for molecular oxygen in comets: A chemical kinetics study of the formation and survival of O${}_2$ ice from clouds to disks
• Where are the Low-Mass Population III Stars ?
• Infrared spectroscopy of eruptive variable protostars from VVV
• Gaia 17bpi: An FU Ori Type Outburst
• Signatures of Gravitational Instability in Resolved Images of Protostellar Disks
• Supermassive star formation via episodic accretion: protostellar disc instability and radiative feedback efficiency
• A continuum of accretion burst behavior in young stars observed by K2
• How do stars gain their mass? A JCMT/SCUBA-2 Transient Survey of Protostars in Nearby Star Forming Regions
• Chronology of Episodic Accretion in Protostars -- an ALMA survey of the CO and H${}_2$O snowlines
• Massive Outflows Driven by Magnetic Effects in Star Forming Clouds with High Mass Accretion Rates
• The First Two Thousand Years of Star Formation
• Determining the recurrence timescale of long-lasting YSO outbursts
• Constraining the Rate of Protostellar Accretion Outbursts in the Orion Molecular Clouds
• Near-Infrared High-Resolution Imaging Polarimetry of FU Ori-Type Objects: Towards A Unified Scheme for Low-Mass Protostellar Evolution
• Burst occurrence in young massive stellar objects
• The chemistry of episodic accretion in embedded objects. 2D radiation thermo-chemical models of the post-burst phase
• An Episodic Wide-angle Outflow in HH 46/47
• Gravitational fragmentation and formation of giant protoplanets on tens-of-au orbits
• Protostellar accretion traced with chemistry. High resolution C18O and continuum observations towards deeply embedded protostars in Perseus
• Disk masses around solar-mass stars are underestimated by CO observations
• A Submillimeter Burst of S255IR~SMA1 - The Rise And Fall Of Its Luminosity
• The JCMT Transient Survey: Data Reduction and Calibration Methods
• Detection of new methanol maser transitions associated with G358.93-0.03
• Outflow detection in a 70 $\mu$m dark high-mass core
• Outbursts in Global Protoplanetary Disk Simulations
• Luminosity outburst chemistry in protoplanetary discs: going beyond standard tracers
• The effect of radiative feedback on disc fragmentation
• Formation of supermassive black hole seeds in nuclear star clusters via gas accretion and runaway collisions
• Global simulations of self-gravitating magnetized protoplanetary disks
• Gravitoviscous protoplanetary disks with a dust component. I. The importance of the inner sub-au region
• A Tail Structure Associated with Protoplanetary Disk around SU Aurigae
• The Rate, Amplitude and Duration of Outbursts from Class 0 Protostars in Orion
• The Relationship between Mid-Infrared and Sub-Millimetre Variability of Deeply Embedded Protostars
• Large-scale CO spiral arms and complex kinematics associated with the T Tauri star RU Lup
• Knotty protostellar jets as a signature of episodic protostellar accretion?
• Tidal Downsizing Model. III. Planets from sub-Earths to Brown Dwarfs: structure and metallicity preferences
• Massive compact disks around FU Orionis-type young eruptive stars revealed by ALMA
• Distinguishing between different mechanisms of FU-Orionis-type luminosity outbursts
• A 1.3 mm SMA Survey of 29 Variable Young Stellar Objects
• Accretion bursts in magnetized gas-dust protoplanetary disks
• Probing Episodic Accretion in Very Low Luminosity Objects
• Ejection of gaseous clumps from gravitationally unstable protostellar disks
• Extreme infrared variables from UKIDSS - II. an end-of-survey catalogue of eruptive YSOs and unusual stars
• A concordant scenario to explain FU Ori from deep centimeter and millimeter interferometric observations
• Short and long term near-infrared spectroscopic variability of eruptive protostars from VVV
• The effect of accretion on the pre-main-sequence evolution of low-mass stars and brown dwarfs
• Gravitoviscous protoplanetary disks with a dust component. II. Spatial distribution and growth of dust in a clumpy disk
• Evolution of dust in protoplanetary disks of eruptive stars
• Irregular dust features around intermediate-mass young stars with GPI: signs of youth or misaligned disks?
• Classifying the embedded young stellar population in Perseus and Taurus & the LOMASS database
• The Extraordinary Outburst in the Massive Protostellar System NGC6334I-MM1: Strong Increase in Mid-Infrared Continuum Emission
• Parameter study for the burst mode of accretion in massive star formation
• The JCMT Transient Survey: Identifying Submillimetre Continuum Variability over Several Year Timescales Using Archival JCMT Gould Belt Survey Observations
• The circumstellar disk response to the motion of the host star
• On the episodic excursions of massive protostars in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
• ALMA observations of the protostellar disk around the VeLLO IRAS 16253-2429
• Episodic excursions of low-mass protostars on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
• Spiral structures in gravito-turbulent gaseous disks
• Mass transport from the envelope to the disk of V346 Nor: a case study for the luminosity problem in an FUor-type young eruptive star
• Vortex stretching in self-gravitating protoplanetary discs
• V346 Normae: First post-outburst observations of an FU Orionis star
• Formation of freely floating sub-stellar objects via close encounters
• Rotating Bullets from A Variable Protostar
• Accretion bursts in high-mass protostars: a new testbed for models of episodic accretion
• Interferometric view of the circumstellar envelopes of northern FU Orionis-type stars
• Pulsational instability of pre-main sequence models from accreting protostars. I. Constraining the input physics for accretion with spectroscopic parameters and stellar pulsations
• Effect of mass loss due to stellar winds on the formation of supermassive black hole seeds in dense nuclear star clusters
• The birth and early evolution of a low mass protostar
• Discovery of a mid-infrared protostellar outburst of exceptional amplitude
• The Circumstellar Disk and Asymmetric outflow of the EX Lup Outburst System
• Formation of dust clumps with sub-Jupiter mass and cold shadowed region in gravitationally unstable disk around Class 0/I protostar in L1527 IRS
• Gravitoviscous protoplanetary disks with a dust component. V. The dynamic model for freeze-out and sublimation of volatiles
• Insights into the inner regions of the FU Orionis disc
• Kinematics of a young low-mass star forming core: Understanding the evolutionary state of the First Core Candidate L1451-mm
• Extreme evaporation of planets in hot thermally unstable protoplanetary discs: the case of FU Ori
• The effect of luminosity outbursts on the protoplanetary disk dynamics
• Improving the thin-disk models of circumstellar disk evolution. The 2+1-dimensional model
• Spirals and clumps in V960 Mon: signs of planet formation via gravitational instability around an FU Ori star?
• Physical parameters of late M-type members of Chamaleon I and TW Hydrae Association: Dust settling, age dispersion and activity
• ALMA Observations of Young Eruptive Stars: continuum disk sizes and molecular outflows
• Primordial Dusty Rings and Episodic Outbursts in Protoplanetary Discs
• Absence of Significant Cool Disks in Young Stellar Objects Exhibiting Repetitive Optical Outbursts
• YSO jets in the Galactic Plane from UWISH2: V - Jets and Outflows in M17
• The imprint of star formation on stellar pulsations
• The outbursting protostar 2MASS~22352345+7517076 and its environment
• An ALMA Study of the FU-Ori Type Object V900 Mon: Implications for the Progenitor
• Photometric variability of massive young stellar objects. I
• On the incidence of episodic accretion in Class I YSOs from VVV
• Time-dependent, long-term hydrodynamic simulations of the inner protoplanetary disk II: The importance of stellar rotation
• The Mid-Infrared Evolution of the FU Orionis Disk
• Reexploring Molecular Complexity with ALMA: Insights into chemical differentiation from the molecular composition of hot cores in Sgr B2(N2)
• The nature of very low luminosity objects (VeLLOs)
• Detection of a dense SiO jet in the evolved protostellar phase
• Protostellar-disc fragmentation across all metallicities
• Optical-infrared flares and radio afterglows by Jovian planets inspiraling into their host stars
• Multi-wavelength detection of an ongoing FUOr-type outburst on a low-mass YSO
• Interpreting observations of edge-on gravitationally unstable accretion flows
• The influence of metallicity on a combined stellar and disk evolution
• Simplified models of circumstellar morphologies for interpreting high-resolution data. Analytical approach to the equatorial density enhancement
• Photometric and Spectroscopic monitoring of YSOs in nearby star forming regions. I. Eruptive YSOs
• A Dual Power Law Distribution for the Stellar Initial Mass Function
• Linear Stability Analysis of a Magnetic Rotating Disk with Ohmic Dissipation and Ambipolar Diffusion
• Outflow-Confined HII regions. II. The Early Break-Out Phase
• The Pre-main Sequence: Challenges and Prospects for Asteroseismology
• The burst mode of accretion in massive star formation with stellar inertia
• On the vortex evolution in non-isothermal protoplanetary discs
• Eruptive Behavior of Magnetically Layered Protoplanetary Disks in Low Metallicity Environments
• ALMA and VLA Observations of EX Lupi in its Quiescent State
• APEX Observations of the CO Envelope around the Young FUor-type Star V883 Ori
• The gas disk: Evolution and chemistry
• Resolving the Binary Components of the Outbursting Protostar HBC 494 with ALMA
• Do subsequent outbursts of the same EXor source present similar features?
• What governs the spin distribution of very young < 1 Myr low mass stars
• Primordial dust rings, hidden dust mass, and the first generation of planetesimals in gravitationally unstable protoplanetary disks
• The structure of young embedded protostellar discs
• The Role of Angular Momentum Transport in Establishing the Accretion Rate--Protostellar Mass Correlation
• M17 MIR: A Massive Star is Forming via Episodic Mass Accretion
• Episodic accretion in binary protostars emerging from self-gravitating solar mass cores
• On the evolution of vortex in locally isothermal self-gravitating discs: a parameter study
• Investigating episodic accretion in a very low-mass young stellar object
• Turn up the light: Radiative efficiency of protostars at birth
• A semi-analytic model for the temporal evolution of the episodic disc-to-star accretion rate during star formation
• On the origin of O${}_2$ and other volatile species in comets
• Modeling Circumstellar Disc Fragmentation and Episodic Protostellar Accretion with Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics in Cell
• Submillimeter continuum variability in Planck Galactic cold clumps
• Effect of Dust Evaporation and Thermal Instability on Temperature Distribution in a Protoplanetary Disk
• Stellar initial mass function variation in massive early-type galaxies: the potential role of the deuterium abundance
• Variable protostellar mass accretion rates in cloud cores
• V2492 Cygni: Optical BVRI variability during the period 2010-2017
• Infrared and sub-mm observations of outbursting young stars with Herschel and Spitzer
• Development and application of fast methods for computing momentum transfer between gas and dust in supercomputer simulation of planet formation
• The JCMT Transient Survey: Four Year Summary of Monitoring the Submillimeter Variability of Protostars
• Using the Modified Lognormal Power Law Distribution to Model the Mass Function of NGC 1711
• Dust growth and planet formation by disc fragmentation
• Infrared observations of the flaring maser source G358.93-0.03 -- SOFIA confirms an accretion burst from a massive young stellar object
• Jets in Low-Mass Protostars
• A universal brown dwarf desert formed between planets and stars
• Formation of massive multiple-star systems: early migration and mergers
• Evidence of Accretion Burst: The Viscously Heated Inner Disk of the Embedded Protostar IRAS 16316-1540
• Structured velocity field in the inner envelope of B335: ALMA observations of rare CO isotopologues
• Global Protoplanetary Disk Simulations: Dead Zone Formation and FUor Outbursts
• Episodic accretion in focus: revealing the environment of FU Orionis-type stars
• Protoplanetary disk formation from the collapse of a prestellar core
• Molecular Cloud Fragmentation and Core Collapse