Interpreting Spectral Energy Distributions from Young Stellar Objects. I. A grid of 200,000 YSO model SEDs

Abstract

We present a grid of radiation transfer models of axisymmetric young stellar objects (YSOs), covering a wide range of stellar masses (from 0.1Msun to 50Msun) and evolutionary stages (from the early envelope infall stage to the late disk-only stage). The grid consists of 20,000 YSO models, with spectral energy distributions (SEDs) and polarization spectra computed at ten viewing angles for each model, resulting in a total of 200,000 SEDs. [...]. These models are publicly available on a dedicated WWW server: http://www.astro.wisc.edu/protostars/ . In this paper we summarize the main features of our models, as well as the range of parameters explored. [...]. We examine the dependence of the spectral indices of the model SEDs on envelope accretion rate and disk mass. In addition, we show variations of spectral indices with stellar temperature, disk inner radius, and disk flaring power for a subset of disk-only models. We also examine how changing the wavelength range of data used to calculate spectral indices affects their values. We show sample color-color plots of the entire grid as well as simulated clusters at various distances with typical {\it Spitzer Space Telescope} sensitivities. We find that young embedded sources generally occupy a large region of color-color space due to inclination and stellar temperature effects. Disk sources occupy a smaller region of color-color space, but overlap substantially with the region occupied by embedded sources, especially in the near- and mid-IR. We identify regions in color-color space where our models indicate that only sources at a given evolutionary stage should lie. [...].

69 pages, 28 figures, Accepted for publication in ApJS. Preprint with full resolution figures available at http://www.astro.wisc.edu/protostars/

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• IN-SYNC. VIII. Primordial Disk Frequencies in NGC 1333, IC 348, and the Orion A Molecular Cloud
• Stars at the Tip of Peculiar Elephant Trunk-Like Clouds in IC 1848E: A Possible Third Mechanism of Triggered Star Formation
• Investigation of the stellar content in the western part of the Carina nebula
• Young open clusters in the galactic star forming region NGC 6357
• SOFIA/FORCAST Galactic Center Legacy Survey: Overview
• Signatures of Young Star Formation Activity Within Two Parsecs of Sgr A*
• Multi-wavelength study of triggered star formation around mid-infrared bubble N14
• Spectral Energy Distributions of High Mass Proto Stellar Objects - Evidence for High Accretion Rates
• A Multi-wavelength Study of the Massive Star-forming Region S87
• The straight and isolated G350.54+0.69 filament: density profile and star formation content
• The High-Mass Protostellar Population of a Massive Infrared Dark Cloud
• Star formation around the mid-infrared bubble CN 148
• The SOFIA Massive (SOMA) Star Formation Survey. III. From Intermediate- to High-Mass Protostars
• Emission Mechanism of "Green Fuzzies" in High-mass Star Forming Regions
• Bayesian inference of T Tauri star properties using multi-wavelength survey photometry
• Pre-main-sequence population in NGC 1893 region
• Mid-infrared interferometry of the massive young stellar object NGC 2264 IRS 1
• The Evolution of Circumstellar Disks Surrounding Intermediate Mass Stars: IC 1805
• Very low-luminosity Class I/Flat outflow sources in sigma Orionis
• An In-Depth View of the Mid-Infrared Properties of Point Sources and the Diffuse ISM in the SMC Giant HII Region, N66
• Triggered Star Formation in a Double Shell near W51A
• X-ray embedded stars as driving sources of outflow-driven turbulence in OMC1-S
• Physical Characteristics of a Dark Cloud in an Early Stage of Star Formation toward NGC 7538: an Outer Galaxy Infrared Dark Cloud?
• The sequence of low and high mass star formation in the young stellar cluster IRAS 19343+2026
• ATOMS: ALMA Three-millimeter Observations of Massive Star-forming regions -XIII. Ongoing triggered star formation within clump-fed scenario found in the massive ($\sim 1500$ ${\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$) clump
• Physical properties of accretion shocks toward the Class I protostellar system Oph-IRS 44
• A molecular outflow evidencing star formation activity in the vicinity of the HII region G034.8-0.7 and the SNR W44
• Variability of young stellar objects in the star-forming region Pelican Nebula
• Massive young stellar objects in the Local Group irregular galaxy NGC6822 identified using machine learning
• Spectral Energy Distributions of Young Stars in IC 348: The Role of Disks in Angular Momentum Evolution of Young, Low-Mass Stars
• A Sample of Intermediate-Mass Star-Forming Regions: Making Stars at Mass Column Densities <1 g/cm^2
• Near-infrared spectroscopic observations of massive young stellar object candidates in the Central Molecular Zone
• An interesting candidate for isolated massive star formation in the Small Magellanic Cloud
• Variable stars in young open star cluster NGC 7380
• Spitzer View of Massive Star Formation in the Tidally Stripped Magellanic Bridge
• A neural network-based methodology to select young stellar object candidates from IR surveys
• A new, rotating hot corino in Serpens
• Disentangling the outflow and protostars in HH 900 in the Carina Nebula
• Effects of X-ray irradiation and disk flaring on the [NeII] 12.8 micron emission from young stellar objects
• Herschel spectroscopy of Massive Young Stellar Objects in the Magellanic Clouds
• H2 flows in the Corona Australis cloud and their driving sources
• An updated modular set of synthetic spectral energy distributions for young stellar objects
• Distances to nearby molecular clouds traced by young stars
• Searching for planetary-mass T-dwarfs in the core of Serpens
• Mid-infrared interferometry of the massive young stellar object NGC3603 - IRS 9A
• Methanol Maser Emission from Galactic Center Sources with Excess 4.5 μm Emission
• Multiwavelength Study of NGC 281 Region
• Spectral Energy Distributions of 6.7 GHz methanol masers
• Submillimeter Array High-angular Resolution Observations of the Monoceros R2 Star Forming Cluster
• ALMA reveals a pseudo-disc in a proto-brown dwarf
• Probing the massive star forming environment - a multiwavelength investigation of the filamentary IRDC G333.73+0.37
• Candidate X-ray-Emitting OB Stars in the MYStIX Massive Star-Forming Regions
• The Near Stellar Environment of Class 0 Protostars: A First Look with Near-Infrared Spectroscopy
• Expanding Shell and Star Formation in the Infrared Dust Bubble N6
• The star formation law in Galactic high-mass star-forming molecular clouds
• YSO jets in the Galactic Plane from UWISH2: V - Jets and Outflows in M17
• Photometric variability of massive young stellar objects. I
• The Duration of Star Formation in Galactic Giant Molecular Clouds. I. The Great Nebula in Carina
• High-resolution ammonia mapping of the very young protostellar core Chamaeleon-MMS1
• The Arizona Radio Observatory CO Mapping Survey of Galactic Molecular Clouds: III. The Serpens Cloud in CO J=2-1 and 13CO J=2-1 Emission
• A single-dish survey of the HCO+, HCN, and CN emission toward the T Tauri disk population in Taurus
• Star forming activity in the H II regions associated with IRAS 17160-3707 complex
• On the properties of discs around accreting brown dwarfs
• Star Formation Activity in the Long, Filamentary Infrared Dark Cloud G53.2
• Sequential and Spontaneous Star Formation Around the Mid-Infrared Halo HII Region KR 140
• The nature of very low luminosity objects (VeLLOs)
• The location, clustering, and propagation of massive star formation in giant molecular clouds
• On the nature of the enigmatic object IRAS 19312+1950: A rare phase of massive star formation?
• The Young Stellar Population of the metal-poor galaxy NGC 6822
• Protostars at Low Extinction in Orion A
• SOFIA/FORCAST and Spitzer/IRAC Imaging of the Ultra Compact H II Region W3(OH) and Associated Protostars in W3
• An Unbiased CO Survey Toward the Northern Region of the Small Magellanic Cloud with the Atacama Compact Array. II. CO Cloud Catalog
• Gas Phase diagnostics of Protoplanetary disk extension
• Object-X: The Brightest Mid-IR Point Source in M33
• Variable stars in the Sh 2-170 HII region
• A multiwavelength investigation of the HII region S311: Young stellar population and star formation
• G048.66-0.29: Physical State of an Isolated Site of Massive Star Formation
• The Spitzer c2d Survey of Nearby Dense Cores VII: Chemistry and Dynamics in L43
• The Double Dust Envelopes of R Coronae Borealis Stars
• Determining the Parameters of Massive Protostellar Clouds via Radiative Transfer Modeling
• The Herschel view of circumstellar discs: a multi-wavelength study of Chamaeleon I
• Influence of Wolf-Rayet stars on surrounding star-forming molecular clouds
• An infrared-submillimeter study of star-forming regions selected by the ISOSS 170um survey
• An unusual very low-mass high-amplitude pre-main sequence periodic variable
• The low-mass YSO CB230-A: investigating the protostar and its jet with NIR spectroscopy and Spitzer observations
• Low-mass pre--main-sequence stars in the Magellanic Clouds
• Massive young stellar objects in the N66/NGC346 region of the SMC
• Infrared point source variability between the Spitzer and MSX surveys of the Galactic mid-plane
• A resolved rotating disk wind from a young T Tauri star in the Bok globule CB26
• Mid - infrared interferometry of massive young stellar objects II Evidence for a circumstellar disk surrounding the Kleinmann - Wright object
• Molecular environs and triggered star formation around the large Galactic infrared bubble N 24
• Wind-Swept Clouds and Possible Triggered Star-Formation associated with the Supernova Remnant G357.7+0.3
• Filamentary Star Formation: Observing the Evolution toward Flattened Envelopes
• Large scale star formation in Auriga region
• Formation of High-Mass stars in an isolated environment in the Large Magellanic Cloud
• Dust entrainment in photoevaporative winds: Densities and imaging
• Bayesian fitting of Taurus brown dwarf spectral energy distributions
• HOPS 136: An Edge-On Orion Protostar Near the End of Envelope Infall
• Star formation activity in the neighbourhood of W-R 1503-160L star in the mid-infrared bubble N46
• A parsec-scale outflow from the luminous YSO IRAS 17527-2439
• VISIONS: The VISTA Star Formation Atlas -- I. Survey overview
• What can the SEDs of first hydrostatic core candidates reveal about their nature?
• The Science Case for PILOT III: the Nearby Universe
• A Chandra and Spitzer census of the young star cluster in the reflection nebula NGC 7129
• Grain growth in newly discovered young eruptive stars
• Examining the Infrared Variable Star Population Discovered in the Small Magellanic Cloud Using the SAGE-SMC Survey
• A Census of Star Formation in the Outer Galaxy: the SMOG field
• The molecular gas around the luminous blue variable star G24.73+0.69
• Resolved star formation in the metal poor star-forming region Magellanic Bridge C
• Triggered star formation in a molecular shell created by a SNR?
• Discovery of four water masers in the Small Magellanic Cloud
• A Spitzer IRS Survey of NGC 1333: Insights into disk evolution from a very young cluster
• Characterizing the X-ray Emission of Intermediate-Mass Pre-Main-Sequence Stars
• A multi-wavelength characterization of proto-brown dwarf candidates in Serpens
• A search for cloud cores affected by shocked carbon chain chemistry in L1251
• Pre-main sequence stars in the stellar association N11 in the Large Magellanic Cloud
• What's Behind the Elephant's Trunk? Identifying Young Stellar Objects on the Outskirts of IC1396
• Sh 2-301: a blistered H II region undergoing star formation
• Star formation in the Cometary Globule Ori I-2
• VLT/X-shooter spectroscopy of massive young stellar objects in the 30 Doradus region of the Large Magellanic Cloud
• "Dust, Ice, and Gas In Time" (DIGIT) Herschel Observations of GSS30-IRS1 in Ophiuchus
• [Fe II] 1.64 um Features of Jets and Outflows from Young Stellar Objects in the Carina Nebula
• A submillimeter search for pre- and proto-brown dwarfs in Chamaeleon II
• Highly variable young massive stars in ATLASGAL clumps
• Protoplanetary and Transitional Disks in the Open Stellar Cluster IC 2395
• Oxygen-rich dust production in IC 10
• Spitzer-IRAC survey of molecular jets in Vela-D
• Aligned grains and inferred toroidal magnetic fields in the envelopes of massive young stellar objects
• Near-infrared spectroscopy of embedded protostars in the massive metal-poor star-forming region NGC 346
• Molecules in the peculiar age-defying source IRAS 19312+1950
• Massive young stellar object W42-MME: The discovery of an infrared jet using VLT/NACO near-infrared images
• Vialactea Visual Analytics tool for Star Formation studies of the Galactic Plane
• Mid Infrared View of the High Mass Star Formation Region W51A
• High-resolution images of two wiggling stellar jets, MHO 1502 and MHO 2147, obtained with GSAOI+GeMS
• SOFIA {\it FORCAST} Photometry of 12 Extended Green Objects in the Milky Way
• Short period variable stars in young open cluster Stock 8
• Evidence for Evolution Among Primordial Disks in the 5 Myr Old Upper Scorpius OB Association
• The Ap 2-1 nebula and the surrounding molecular cloud G35.2-0.74: an active star forming region
• Overview Results of JWST Observations of Star-Forming Clusters in the Extreme Outer Galaxy
• Sequential Star Formation in the Young SMC Region NGC 602: Insights from ALMA
• Massive young stellar objects in the Local Group spiral galaxy M33 identified using machine learning
• Infrared study of the star-forming region associated with the UC HII regions G45.07+0.13 and G45.12+0.13
• GM 2-4 - a signpost for low and intermediate mass star formation
• High-resolution Pan-STARRS and SMA observations of IRAS 23077+6707: A giant edge-on protoplanetary disk
• Study of the molecular clump associated with the high-energy source HESS J1858+020
• Unveiling the near-infrared structure of the massive-young stellar object NGC 3603 IRS 9A with sparse aperture masking and spectroastrometry
• Unveiling the nature of candidate high-mass young stellar objects in the Magellanic Clouds with near-IR spectroscopy
• Imaging of Four Galactic Supernovae Remnants in the Mid-Infrared, and their Interaction with the Interstellar Medium
• Molecular line study of massive star forming regions from the RMS survey
• A deep multi-band investigation of IC2391
• Accretion Burst Crystallizes Silicates in a Planet-Forming Disk
• A detailed study of the high-mass clump interacting with the bubble N10
• Dense Molecular Cores Being Externally Heated
• Characterizing star formation activity in infrared dark cloud MSXDC G048.65-00.29
• On the nature of faint mid-infrared sources in M33
• A long-lasting quiescence phase of the eruptive variable V1118 Ori
• Sh2-205: II. Its quiescent stellar formation activity
• Intrinsically Polarized Stars and Implication for Star Formation in the Central Parsec of Our Galaxy
• The NEMESIS Catalogue of Young Stellar Objects for the Orion Star Formation Complex. I. General description of data curation
• Ultracompact HII regions with extended emission: The case of G43.89-0.78 and its molecular environment
• A multiwavelength view of the protostellar binary IRAS04325+2402: a case for turbulent fragmentation
• The infrared and molecular environment surrounding the Wolf-Rayet star WR130
• Two compact HII regions at the remote outskirts of the Magellanic Clouds
• Study of the dense molecular gas surrounding the "Extended Green Object" G35.03+0.35
• The VMC survey -- XXXVI. Young stellar variability in the Large Magellanic Cloud
• Constraining the Movement of the Spiral Features and the Locations of Planetary Bodies within the AB Aur System
• A 1000 AU Scale Molecular Outflow Driven by a Protostar with an age of <4000 Years
• Iris: an Extensible Application for Building and Analyzing Spectral Energy Distributions
• The nature of the compact HII region Sh 2-89 and its stellar content
• A Parsec-scale Bipolar H${}_2$ Outflow in the Massive Star Forming Infrared Dark Cloud Core MSXDC G053.11+00.05 MM1
• A multi-transition molecular line study of infrared dark cloud G331.71+00.59
• Spectroscopic Survey of Hα Emission Line Stars Associated with Bright Rimmed Clouds
• Searching for further evidence for cloud-cloud collisions in L1188
• WISE Green Objects (WGOs): the massive star candidates in the whole Galactic Plane ($\mid b\mid <2^{\circ }$)
• SABOCA 350-micron and LABOCA 870-micron dust continuum imaging of IRAS 05399-0121: mapping the dust properties of a pre- and protostellar core system
• Herschel Observations of a Newly Discovered UX Ori Star in the Large Magellanic Cloud
• Deep optical survey of the stellar content of Sh2-311 region
• Properties of star formation of the Large Magellanic Cloud as probed by young stellar objects
• A Comparison of Approaches in Fitting Continuum SEDs
• Sustaining Star Formation in the Galactic Star Cluster M 36?
• Physicochemical models: source-tailored or generic?
• Protostellar Outflows: a window to the past
• Candidate Coronagraphic Detections of Protoplanetary Disks around Four Young Stars
• Star formation in the luminous YSO IRAS 18345-0641
• Masers as Probes of Massive Star Formation in the Nuclear Disk
• Sequential Star Formation in the filamentary structures of Planck Galactic cold clump G181.84+0.31
• Search for isolated Galactic Centre stellar mass black holes in the IR and sub-mm range
• Completing the Protostellar Luminosity Function in Cygnus-X with SOFIA/FORCAST Imaging
• The discovery based on GLIMPSE data of a protostar driving a bipolar outflow
• The Young Stellar Population, Distance, and Cloud-Cloud Collision Induced Star Formation Scenario of the Trifid Nebula
• Radio and IR study of the massive star-forming region IRAS 16353-4636
• Discovery of two embedded massive YSOs and an outflow in IRAS 18144-1723
• The Interaction of Supernova Remnant G357.7+0.3 with the Interstellar Medium
• Star forming regions linked to RCW78 and the discovery of a new IR bubble
• Herschel Far IR observations of the giant HII region NGC 3603
• Comparison of three Statistical Classification Techniques for Maser Identification
• Comparison of Low-Mass and High-Mass Star Formation
• A near-infrared variability study in the cloud IC1396W: low star-forming efficiency and two new eclipsing binaries
• The Nature of Class I Sources: Periodic Variables in Orion
• Photometric variability of the pre-main sequence stars towards the Sh 2-190 region
• CS emission near MIR-bubbles
• Massive Young Stellar Objects and Outflow in the Infrared-Dark Cloud G79.3+0.3
• Stellar clustering and the kinematics of stars around Collinder 121 using Gaia DR3
• Investigation of Star Formation toward the Sharpless 155 H II region
• Synthetic observations of protostellar multiple systems
• Magnetic field dispersion in the neighbourhood of Bok Globules
• The star in RNO 54 -- a post-FUor with short faint jet?
• Massive Star Formation in the LMC. I. N159 and N160 Complexes
• Ammonia mapping observations of the Galactic infrared bubble N49: Three NH${}_3$ clumps along the molecular filament
• The spectral energy distribution of protoplanetary diss around Massive Young Stellar Objects
• Low-mass Star Formation: Observations
• Gas and Dust Absorption in the DoAr 24E System
• The nature of G52.381-0.849 and G56.240-0.345: young stellar objects associated with extended mid-infrared emission?
• Star Formation in the Milky Way. The Infrared View
• High-Resolution Observations of the Molecular Clouds Associated with the Huge HII Region CTB 102
• The Planck submillimeter properties of Galactic high-mass star forming regions: dust temperatures, luminosities, masses and Star Formation Efficiency
• YSO search toward the boundary of the Central Molecular Zone with near-infrared polarimetry
• Optical polarimetry of HH 135/HH 136
• Massive envelopes and filaments in the NGC 3603 star forming region
• Silicate features in the circumstellar envelopes of the Class~I binary driving source of HH250
• Infrared observations of the flaring maser source G358.93-0.03 -- SOFIA confirms an accretion burst from a massive young stellar object
• Semi-analytic calculations for extended mid-Infrared emission associated with FU Ori-type objects
• Multiple outflows from the luminous YSO IRAS 07422-2001
• Near-Infrared Monitoring and Modelling of V1647 Ori in its On-going 2008-12 Outburst Phase
• A framework for modeling the evolution of young stellar objects
• Sequential clustering of star formation in IC 1396
• Unraveling the Spectral Energy Distributions of Clustered YSOs
• A runaway T-Tauri star leaving an extended trail
• The VLA/ALMA Nascent Disk and Multiplicity (VANDAM) Survey of Orion Protostars VI. Insights from Radiative Transfer Modeling
• Star formation in two irradiated globules around Cygnus OB2
• Characterizing and spectrally modeling embedded FUor eruptions in the near-infrared
• A VLA View of the Flared, Asymmetric Disk Around the Class 0 Protostar L1527 IRS
• The Variation of Circumstellar Parameters through Early Stellar Evolution
• Star formation toward the H~II region IRAS 10427-6032
• Linking Young Stellar Object Morphology to Evolutionary Stages with Self-Organizing Maps
• Impact of an inhomogeneous density distribution on selected observational characteristics of circumstellar disks
• Star Formation