Single-electron current sources: towards a refined definition of ampere

Abstract

Controlling electrons at the level of elementary charge $e$ has been demonstrated experimentally already in the 1980's. Ever since, producing an electrical current $ef$, or its integer multiple, at a drive frequency $f$ has been in a focus of research for metrological purposes. In this review we first discuss the generic physical phenomena and technical constraints that influence charge transport. We then present the broad variety of proposed realizations. Some of them have already proven experimentally to nearly fulfill the demanding needs, in terms of transfer errors and transfer rate, of quantum metrology of electrical quantities, whereas some others are currently "just" wild ideas, still often potentially competitive if technical constraints can be lifted. We also discuss the important issues of read-out of single-electron events and potential error correction schemes based on them. Finally, we give an account of the status of single-electron current sources in the bigger framework of electric quantum standards and of the future international SI system of units, and briefly discuss the applications and uses of single-electron devices outside the metrological context.

55 pages, 38 figures; (v2) fixed typos and misformatted references, reworded the section on AC pumps

References in corpus (42)

• Room-Temperature Quantum Hall Effect in Graphene
• New determination of the fine structure constant and test of the quantum electrodynamics
• An On-Demand Coherent Single Electron Source
• Localization of preformed Cooper-pairs in disordered superconductors
• Direct Measurement of the Spin-Orbit Interaction in a Two-Electron InAs Nanowire Quantum Dot
• Single-mode heat conduction by photons
• Eigenfunction fractality and pseudogap state near superconductor-insulator transition
• Single-parameter non-adiabatic quantized charge pumping
• Test of Jarzynski and Crooks fluctuation relations in an electronic system
• Number fluctuations of sparse quasiparticles in a superconductor
• Electron counting in quantum dots
• Quantum-Limited Measurement and Information in Mesoscopic Detectors
• Experimental determination of the Berry phase in a superconducting charge pump
• Quasiparticle relaxation in optically excited high-Q superconducting resonators
• Recombination limited energy relaxation in a BCS superconductor
• Electron pumping in graphene mechanical resonators
• Robust single-parameter quantized charge pumping
• Non-adiabadic charge pumping in a hybrid SET transistor
• Counting statistics for electron capture in a dynamic quantum dot
• Normal metal - superconductor tunnel junction as a Brownian refrigerator
• Quantum Metrology Triangle Experiments: A Status Review
• Measurement scheme of the Berry phase in superconducting circuits
• Andreev Current-Induced Dissipation in a Hybrid Superconducting Tunnel Junction
• Single-parameter quantized charge pumping in high magnetic fields
• Generation of energy selective excitations in quantum Hall edge states
• Nanoampere pumping of Cooper pairs
• Coulomb blockade and Bloch oscillations in superconducting Ti nanowires
• Are pinholes the cause of excess current in superconducting tunnel junctions? A study of Andreev current in highly resistive junctions
• Enhanced current quantization in high frequency electron pumps in a perpendicular magnetic field
• Quantum fluctuations and coherence in high-precision single-electron capture
• Connecting Berry's phase and the pumped charge in a Cooper pair pump
• The Cooper Pair Pump as a Quantized Current Source
• Measuring current by counting electrons in a nanowire quantum dot
• Environmentally Activated Tunneling Events in a Hybrid Single-Electron Box
• Topological quantization by controlled paths: application to Cooper pairs pumps
• Current to frequency conversion in a Josephson circuit
• A quantized current source with mesoscopic feedback
• Single Cooper-pair pumping in the adiabatic limit and beyond
• Ground-state geometric quantum computing in superconducting systems
• The single-atom box: bosonic staircase and effects of parity
• Si/SiGe quantum dot with superconducting single-electron transistor charge sensor
• Enhancing the conductance of a two-electron nanomechanical oscillator

Cited by in corpus (195)

• A Thouless Quantum Pump with Ultracold Bosonic Atoms in an Optical Superlattice
• Millisecond charge-parity fluctuations and induced decoherence in a superconducting qubit
• Coherent control of single electrons: a review of current progress
• Electron quantum optics in ballistic chiral conductors
• Thouless pumping and topology
• Non-adiabatic quantized charge pumping with tunable-barrier quantum dots: a review of current progress
• Roadmap on quantum nanotechnologies
• Roadmap for gallium arsenide spin qubits
• Phonon traps reduce the quasiparticle density in superconducting circuits
• Experimental Observation of a Generalized Thouless Pump with a Single Spin
• A two-atom electron pump
• Validation of a quantized-current source with 0.2 ppm uncertainty
• Quantized current steps due to the a.c. coherent quantum phase-slip effect
• Normal-metal quasiparticle traps for superconducting qubits
• A self-referenced single-electron quantized-current source
• An accurate single-electron pump based on a highly tunable silicon quantum dot
• Levitons for electron quantum optics
• Engineering interfacial quantum states and electronic landscapes by molecular nanoarchitectures
• Full Counting Statistics of Andreev Tunneling
• Topological phases of a dimerized Fermi-Hubbard model for semiconductor nano-lattices
• Observation of vanishing charge dispersion of a nearly-open superconducting island
• Topological pumping in a Floquet-Bloch band
• Evidence for universality of tunable-barrier electron pumps
• Efficient and Continuous Microwave Photodetection in Hybrid Cavity-Semiconductor Nanowire Double Quantum Dot Diodes
• Nanoscale superconducting memory based on the kinetic inductance of asymmetric nanowire loops
• Energy and power fluctuations in ac-driven coherent conductors
• Controlling charge quantization with quantum fluctuations
• Theory of quantum-circuit refrigeration by photon-assisted electron tunneling
• Unveiling Mechanisms of Electric Field Effects on Superconductors by Magnetic Field Response
• Thermal-error regime in high-accuracy gigahertz single-electron pumping
• Dynamic thermoelectric and heat transport in mesoscopic capacitors
• Progress in cooling nanoelectronic devices to ultra-low temperatures
• Strong suppression of shot noise in a feedback-controlled single-electron transistor
• Ultrafast Emission and Detection of a Single-Electron Gaussian Wave Packet: A Theoretical Study
• Real-time observation of Cooper pair splitting showing strong non-local correlations
• Single Quantum Level Electron Turnstile
• Thermoelectrics in Coulomb-coupled quantum dots: Cotunneling and energy-dependent lead couplings
• Practical quantum realization of the ampere from the electron charge
• 500 microkelvin nanoelectronics
• Validation of the ultrastable low-noise current amplifier as travelling standard for small direct currents
• Heat, molecular vibrations, and adiabatic driving in non-equilibrium transport through interacting quantum dots
• Picosecond coherent electron motion in a silicon single-electron source
• Interactions enable Thouless pumping in a nonsliding lattice
• Using materials for quasiparticle engineering
• Exact Distributions of Currents and Frenesy for Markov Bridges
• Thermodynamic Bounds on Coherent Transport in Periodically Driven Conductors
• Transconductance quantization in a topological Josephson tunnel junction circuit
• On-chip magnetic cooling of a nanoelectronic device
• Charge State Hysteresis in Semiconductor Quantum Dots
• Shaping charge excitations in chiral edge states with a time-dependent gate voltage
• Extreme reductions of entropy in an electronic double dot
• Robust operation of a GaAs tunable barrier electron pump
• Accurate Coulomb Blockade Thermometry up to 60 Kelvin
• Stochastic thermodynamics of all-to-all interacting many-body systems
• Exceptionally accurate large graphene quantum Hall arrays for the new SI
• Phase-tunable thermoelectricity in a Josephson junction
• Anomalous electronic heat capacity of copper nanowires at sub-kelvin temperatures
• Non-Adiabatic Dynamics in Single-Electron Tunneling Devices with Time-Dependent Density Functional Theory
• Giga-Hertz quantized charge pumping in bottom gate defined InAs nanowire quantum dots
• Detection of the relaxation rates of an interacting quantum dot by a capacitively coupled sensor dot
• Optimal configurations for normal-metal traps in transmon qubits
• Renormalization in periodically driven quantum dots
• The ampere and the electrical units in the quantum era
• Cooper-pair transistor as a minimal topological quantum circuit
• Gauge freedom in observables and Landsbergs nonadiabatic geometric phase: pumping spectroscopy of interacting open quantum systems
• Fast and accurate Cooper pair pump
• Proximity effect in normal-metal quasiparticle traps
• Electron waiting times of a periodically driven single-electron turnstile
• Dynamics of parametric fluctuations induced by quasiparticle tunneling in superconducting flux qubits
• Phonon emission and arrival times of electrons from a single-electron source
• Pushing the limits in real-time measurements of quantum dynamics
• Dynamical Coulomb blockade of tunnel junctions driven by alternating voltages
• Spin-selective electron transfer in quantum dot array
• Coulomb-blockade effect in nonlinear mesoscopic capacitors
• Duality for open fermion systems: energy-dependent weak coupling and quantum master equations
• Relaxation of quantum dots in a magnetic field at finite bias -- charge, spin and heat currents
• Precision measurement of an electron pump at 2 GHz
• Topological pumping assisted by Bloch oscillations
• Controlled emission time statistics of a dynamic single-electron transistor
• Current rectification in double quantum dot through fermionic reservoir engineering
• Fractional Josephson effect versus fractional charge in superconducting-normal metal hybrid circuits
• Full counting statistics for electron transport in periodically driven quantum dots
• Active quasiparticle suppression in a non-equilibrium superconductor
• On-Chip Cooling by Heating with Superconducting Tunnel Junctions
• Electron-phonon coupling in metallic carbon nanotubes: Dispersionless electron propagation despite dissipation
• Effective thermodynamics of two interacting underdamped Brownian particles
• Partition of Two Interacting Electrons by a Potential Barrier
• Classical-to-quantum crossover in electron on-demand emission
• Quantum charge pumping through fractional Fermions in charge density modulated quantum wires and Rashba nanowires
• Quasiclassical theory of charge transport across mesoscopic normal metal-superconducting heterostructures with current conservation
• Geometric energy transport and refrigeration with driven quantum dots
• Coulomb blockade and quantum confinement in field electron emission from heterostructured nanotips
• Dual Shapiro steps of a phase-slip junction in the presence of a parasitic capacitance
• A robust platform cooled by superconducting electronic refrigerators
• Optimization of quantized charge pumping using full counting statistics
• Functional renormalization group in Floquet space
• Gigahertz Single-Electron Pumping Mediated by Parasitic States
• Composite two-particle sources
• Quasiparticle trapping at vortices producing Josephson supercurrent enhancement
• Reducing current noise in cryogenic experiments by vacuum-insulated cables
• Landau-Zener-Stueckelberg physics with a singular continuum of states
• A programmable quantum current standard from the Josephson and the quantum Hall effects
• Single-particle emission at finite temperatures
• Theory of box-model hyperfine couplings and transport signatures of long-range nuclear-spin coherence in a quantum-dot spin valve
• Dispersionless propagation of electron wavepackets in single-walled carbon nanotubes
• Frequency to power conversion by an electron turnstile
• Dynamic Cooper Pair Splitter
• Correlations between charge and energy current in ac-driven coherent conductors
• Quantum mechanical current-to-voltage conversion with quantum Hall resistance array
• A random-walk benchmark for single-electron circuits
• Superconducting Quantum Interference Single-Electron Transistor
• Junctionless Cooper pair transistor
• Time-dependent quantum transport through an interacting quantum dot beyond sequential tunneling: second-order quantum rate equations
• Local and non-local two-electron tunneling processes in a Cooper pair splitter
• Adiabatic Cooper pair splitter
• Readout of relaxation rates by nonadiabatic pumping spectroscopy
• A primary quantum current standard based on the Josephson and the quantum Hall effects
• Heat dissipation mechanisms in hybrid superconductor-semiconductor devices revealed by Joule spectroscopy
• Effects of Coulomb interaction on photon-assisted current noises through a quantum dot
• Geometric quantum pumping in the presence of dissipation
• Improvements of the programmable quantum current generator for better traceability of electrical current measurements
• Correlated transport through junction arrays in the small Josephson energy limit: incoherent Cooper-pairs and hot electrons
• Dopant-controlled single-electron pumping through a metallic island
• Exploring a new ammeter traceability route for ionisation chamber measurements
• Non-adiabatic single-electron pump in a dopant-free GaAs/AlGaAs 2DEG
• Dynamics of a single-atom electron pump
• Scanned single-electron probe inside a silicon electronic device
• Re-evaluation of uncertainty for calibration of $100$ M$\Omega$ and $1$ G$\Omega$ resistors at NPL
• Interaction effect on reservoir-parameter-driven adiabatic charge pumping via a single-level quantum dot system
• Temperature-driven and electrochemical-potential-driven adiabatic pumping via a quantum dot
• An ideal rapid-cycle Thouless pump
• Electron counting capacitance standard and quantum metrology triangle experiments at PTB
• Finite-frequency noise of interacting single-electron emitters: spectroscopy with higher noise harmonics
• Quantum Dot Source-Drain Transport Response at Microwave Frequencies
• Reversing the Landauer's erasure: single-electron Maxwell's demon operating at the limit of thermodynamic efficiency
• Phase-driven charge manipulation in Hybrid Single-Electron Transistor
• Energy fluctuations of finite free-electron Fermi gas
• Heat and charge transport in interacting nanoconductors driven by time-modulated temperatures
• Long-range Fermi sea correlations as the resource for encoding quantum information
• Spectral Signatures of Non-Trivial Topology in a Superconducting Circuit
• Applications and non-idealities of submicron Al-AlOx-Nb tunnel junctions
• Feasibility of the Josephson voltage and current standards on a single chip
• Topological charge, spin and heat transistor
• On new definitions of SI base units. Why is the "atomic" kilogram preferable
• Clocked single-spin source based on a spin-split superconductor
• Non-equilibrium boundary driven quantum systems: models, methods and properties
• Floquet scattering matrix approach to the phase noise of a single-electron source in the adiabatic regime
• Optical Magnetometry based Current Source
• Electron shuttle as an autonomous single-electron source
• A charge parity ammeter
• Single-Hole Pump in Germanium
• Transport fluctuation relations in interacting quantum pumps
• Adiabatic almost-topological pumping of fractional charges in non-interacting quantum dots
• Dynamical spin polarization of excess quasi-particles in superconductors
• Fast characterization of multiplexed single-electron pumps with machine learning
• Anomalous negative magnetoresistance in quantum-dot Josephson junctions with Kondo correlations
• Spectroscopy of hot-electron pair emission from a driven quantum dot
• Quantum adiabatic pumping by modulating tunnel phase in quantum dots
• Recovery of a SINIS turnstile accuracy in a strongly non-equilibrium regime
• Characterising superconducting filters using residual microwave background
• Synchronization of Bloch oscillations by gate voltage modulation
• Single electron routing in a silicon quantum-dot array
• Advances toward high-accuracy gigahertz operation of tunable-barrier single-hole pumps in silicon
• Modeling shallow confinement in tuneable quantum dots
• Quantum transport phenomena induced by time-dependent fields
• Superconducting tunnel junction fabrication on three-dimensional topography via direct laser writing
• Characterizing and Mitigating Timing Noise-Induced Decoherence in Single Electron Sources
• Transfer-matrix summation of path integrals for transport through nanostructures
• Interplay of charge and vorticity quantization in superconducting Coulomb blockaded island
• Manipulation of a single magnetic atom using polarized single electron transport in a double quantum dot
• Charge state estimation in quantum dots using a Bayesian approach
• An ambipolar single-charge pump in silicon
• Coulomb collisions of hot and cold single electrons in series-coupled silicon single-electron pumps
• Effect of device design on charge offset drift in Si/SiO${}_2$ single electron devices
• Nonadiabatic Correction and Adiabatic Criteria of Noninteracting Quantum Dot Systems
• Geometrical optimization of pumping power under adiabatic parameter driving
• Entanglement Generation and Stabilization by Coherent Collisions
• Adiabatic pumping driven by moving kink and quantum standard ampere in buckled graphene nanoribbon
• Periodic source of energy-entangled electrons in helical states coupled to a BCS superconductor
• Experimental determination of the elastic cotunneling rate in a hybrid single-electron box
• Single charge transport in a fully superconducting SQUISET locally tuned by self-inductance effects
• Zero-average bias bidirectional single-electron current generation in a hybrid turnstile
• Numerical Simulation of Quantized Current Generated by a Quantum Dot Pump
• Imaging asymmetric Coulomb blockade phenomena across metallic nanoislands
• Universal scaling of adiabatic tunneling out of a shallow confinement potential
• Etching process of narrow wire and application to tunable-barrier electron pump
• Scalable Parallel Single-Electron Pumps in Silicon with Split-Source Control in the Nanoampere Regime
• Suppression of back-tunnelling events in hybrid single-electron turnstiles by source-drain bias modulation
• Revealing the internal spin dynamics in a double quantum dot by periodic voltage modulation
• Steady-state heat engines driven by finite reservoirs
• Controlling the error mechanism in a tunable-barrier non-adiabatic charge pump by dynamic gate compensation
• Quantized Acoustoelectric Floquet Effect in Quantum Nanowires
• Optimal control over the full counting statistics in a non-adiabatic pump
• Extra cost of erasure due to quantum lifetime broadening
• Photon-Assisted Tunneling in Double Quantum Dot: Application of Scattering Theory