Mergers and Bulge Formation in Lambda-CDM: Which Mergers Matter?

Abstract

We use a suite of semi-empirical models to predict galaxy merger rates and contributions to bulge growth as functions of merger mass, redshift, and mass ratio. The models use empirical halo occupation constraints to identify mergers, together with high-resolution simulations to quantify how mergers with different properties contribute to the bulge population. We find good agreement with a variety of observational constraints, and provide fitting functions for merger rates and contributions to bulge growth. We identify several robust conclusions. (1) Major mergers dominate formation and assembly of L* bulges and the spheroid mass density, minor mergers contribute ~30%. (2) This is mass-dependent: bulge formation is dominated by more minor mergers in lower-mass systems. At higher masses, bulges form in major mergers near L*, but subsequently assemble in minor mergers. (3) The minor/major contribution is also morphology-dependent: higher B/T systems form in more major mergers, lower B/T systems form in situ from minor mergers. (4) Low-mass galaxies, being gas-rich, require more major mergers to reach the same B/T as high-mass systems. (5) Absolute merger rates increase with galaxy mass. (6) Predicted rates agree well with observations, but suggest that some morphology-selected samples include contamination from minor mergers. (7) Predicted rates agree with integrated growth in bulge mass with cosmic time, but with factor ~2 uncertainty - half the bulge mass density could come from non-mergers. We consider ~1000 model variations and quantify resulting uncertainties. Conclusions regarding the major/minor contribution to bulge growth are very robust, absolute merger rates have systematic factor ~2 uncertainties.

18 figures, 29 pages. Accepted for publication in ApJ. A script to provide predicted galaxy merger rates is available at http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/~phopkins/Site/mergercalc.html

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• The buildup of galaxies and their spheroids: the contributions of mergers, disc instabilities and star formation
• The accretion history of the Milky Way. I. How it shapes globular clusters and dwarf galaxies
• The Quasar Mass-Luminosity Plane II: High Mass Turnoff Evolution and a Synchronization Puzzle
• The NGC7771+NGC7770 Minor Merger: Harassing the Little One?
• The Merger-Triggered Active Galactic Nuclei Contribution to the Ultraluminous Infrared Galaxy Population
• Gas metallicity distributions in SDSS-IV MaNGA galaxies: what drives gradients and local trends?
• The AGN Population in X-ray Selected Galaxy Groups at $0.5<z<1.1$
• Gas and dust in a z=2.8 obscured quasar
• The evolution of disc galaxies with and without classical bulges since z~1
• The Effect of Environment on Galaxy Spiral Arms, Bars, Concentration, and Quenching
• Formation and assembly history of stellar components in galaxies as a function of stellar and halo mass
• The frequency of very young galaxies in the local Universe: I. A test for galaxy formation and cosmological models
• Spiral-arm instability - II: magnetic destabilisation
• The Relation between Morphological Asymmetry and Nuclear Activity in Low-redshift Galaxies
• Powerful Radio-Loud Quasars are Triggered by Galaxy Mergers in the Cosmic Bright Ages
• Data and 2D scaling relations for galaxies in Abell 1689: a hint of size evolution at z~0.2
• Massive Early-Type Galaxies in the HSC-SSP: Flux Fraction of Tidal Features and Merger Rates
• The evolution of compact massive quiescent and starforming galaxies derived from the $R_e-R_h$ and $M_{\mathrm{star}}-M_h$ relations
• Signatures of inflowing gas in red geyser galaxies hosting radio-AGN
• Mass and Environment as Drivers of Galaxy Evolution. IV. On the Quenching of Massive Central Disk Galaxies in The Local Universe
• Predicting fully self-consistent satellite richness, galaxy growth and starformation rates from the STastical sEmi-Empirical modeL STEEL
• Black Hole Growth in Disk Galaxies Mediated by the Secular Evolution of Short Bars
• Morphology of galaxies with quiescent recent assembly history in a Lambda-CDM universe
• The number of dwarf satellites of disk galaxies versus their bulge mass in the standard model of cosmology
• The Next Generation Virgo Cluster Survey XVI. The Angular Momentum of Dwarf Early-Type Galaxies from Globular Cluster Satellites
• Synergies between low- and intermediate-redshift galaxy populations revealed with unsupervised machine learning
• Relaxed blue ellipticals: accretion-driven stellar growth is a key evolutionary channel for low mass elliptical galaxies
• Resolving the dynamical mass of a z~1.3 QSO host galaxy using SINFONI and Laser Guide Star assisted Adaptive Optics
• The XXL Survey: XXII. The XXL-North spectrophotometric sample and galaxy stellar mass function in X-ray detected groups and clusters
• The Activation of Galactic Nuclei and Their Accretion Rates are Linked to the Star Formation Rates and Bulge-types of Their Host Galaxies
• The Age-Redshift Relation For Luminous Red Galaxies Obtained From the Full Spectrum Fitting and Its Cosmological Implications
• An outflow in the Seyfert ESO 362-G18 revealed by Gemini-GMOS/IFU Observations
• The Origin of Stars in the Inner 500 Parsecs in TNG50 Galaxies
• Compact galaxies and the size-mass galaxy distribution from a colour-selected sample at 0.04 < z < 0.15 supplemented by ugrizYJHK photometric redshifts
• Merger history of central galaxies in Semi-Analytic Models of galaxy formation
• The rate and contribution of mergers to mass assembly from NIRCam observations of galaxy candidates up to 13.3 billion years ago
• Modelling the formation of today's massive ellipticals
• Peanut-shaped metallicity distributions in bulges of edge-on galaxies: the case of NGC 4710
• Galaxy Structural Analysis with the Curvature of the Brightness Profile
• Testing a theoretical prediction for bar formation in galaxies with bulges
• JADES: Rest-frame UV-to-NIR Size Evolution of Massive Quiescent Galaxies from Redshift z=5 to z=0.5
• Red galaxies with pseudo-bulges in the SDSS: closer to disk galaxies or to classical bulges?
• When Should We Treat Galaxies as Isolated?
• Remnants of recent mergers in nearby early-type galaxies and their classification
• The imprint of galaxy mergers on satellite planes in a cosmological context
• Detection of Prominent Stellar Disks in the Progenitors of Present-day Massive Elliptical Galaxies
• The Puzzling Origin of Massive Compact Galaxies in MaNGA
• Structural properties of disk galaxies. II. Intrinsic shape of bulges
• Saying Hallo to M94's Stellar Halo: Investigating the Accretion History of the Largest Pseudobulge Host in the Local Universe
• The ALPINE-ALMA [CII] Survey: CGM pollution and gas mixing by tidal stripping in a merging system at z~4.57
• The weak dependence of velocity dispersion on disk fractions, mass-to-light ratio and redshift: Implications for galaxy and black hole evolution
• AGN in the CALIFA survey: X-ray detection of nuclear sources
• Modeling the Black hole Merger of QSO 3C 186
• MOSEL survey: JWST reveals major mergers/strong interactions drive the extreme emission lines in the early universe
• Less Wound and More Asymmetric: JWST Confirms the Evolution of Spiral Structure in Galaxies at $z\lesssim 3$
• A close-pair analysis of damp mergers at intermediate redshifts
• Carbon envelopes around merging galaxies at z ~ 4.5
• Rapid Growth of Galactic Supermassive Black Holes through Accreting Giant Molecular Clouds during Major Mergers of their Host Galaxies
• A machine learning approach to infer the accreted stellar mass fractions of central galaxies in the TNG100 simulation
• Bar rejuvenation in S0 galaxies?
• Segregation effects in DEEP2 galaxy groups
• Photometry and dynamics of the minor mergers AM\,1228-260 and AM\,2058-381
• Connecting traces of galaxy evolution: the missing core mass -- morphological fine structure relation
• Universe opacity and EBL
• Radial velocities of RR Lyrae stars in and around NGC 6441
• Using angular momentum maps to detect kinematically distinct galactic components
• Growth of disc-like pseudo-bulges in SDSS DR7 since z = 0.1
• Probing gaseous halos of galaxies with radio jets
• Critical Stellar Central Densities Drive Galaxy Quenching in the Nearby Universe
• Testing a prediction of the merger origin of early-type galaxies: a correlation between stellar populations and asymmetry
• Tracing Recent Star Formation of Red Early-type Galaxies out to $z$ $\sim$ 1
• Multi-wavelength observations of the triple-peaked AGN Mrk 622
• Predicting bulge to total luminosity ratio of galaxies using deep learning
• The properties and environment of very young galaxies in the local Universe
• The Milky Way accretion history compared to cosmological simulations -- from bulge to dwarf galaxy infall
• The abundance of massive compact galaxies at $1.0<z<3.0$ in 3D-HST/CANDELS
• Rendezvous in CAVITY: Kinematics and gas properties of an isolated dwarf-dwarf merging pair in a cosmic void region
• The Star Formation Reference Survey. IV. Stellar mass distribution of local star-forming galaxies
• A MaNGA view of isolated galaxy mergers in the star-forming Main Sequence
• Metallicity and Star Formation Activities of the Interacting System Arp 86 from Observation with MOS on Xinglong 2.16m Telescope
• Photometric properties of classical bulge and pseudo-bulge galaxies at $0.5\le z<1.0$
• The stellar mass function of quiescent and star-forming galaxies and its dependence on morphology in COSMOS-Web
• Time-average properties of $z\sim 0.6$ major mergers: mergers significantly scatter high-z scaling relations
• Galaxy formation hydrodynamics: From cosmic flows to star-forming clouds
• The weak connection between the stellar haloes and merger histories of Milky Way-mass galaxies
• Beyond diagnostic-diagrams: A critical exploration on the classification of ionization processes
• Structures in galaxies: nature versus nurture. Input from theory and simulations
• A theoretical investigation of far-infrared fine structure lines at $z>6$ and of the origin of the [OIII]88/[CII]158 enhancement
• Merging history of massive galaxies at 3<z<6
• Constraints on the Minor Merging and Star Formation History of the Wolf-Rayet Galaxy NGC 5430 Through Observations
• Low-redshift analogues of cosmic noon galaxies as laboratories for clumpy star formation
• The dynamical evolution of the stellar clumps in the Sparkler galaxy
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: Stellar rotational support in disk galaxies vs. central surface density and stellar population age
• Interactions among intermediate redshift galaxies. The case of SDSSJ134420.86+663717.8
• DeepMerge: Classifying High-redshift Merging Galaxies with Deep Neural Networks
• Orbit-based structural decomposition and stellar population recovery for edge-on barred galaxies
• Estimating the mass of galactic components using machine learning algorithms
• Investigating the Bulge Morphology of Dual AGN Host Galaxies from the GOTHIC survey
• Size-Mass Relation Shows Its Colours: Contrasting Physical Imprints of Galaxy Evolution in Rest-Frame UV and Optical
• Testing the key role of the stellar mass-halo mass relation in galaxy merger rates and morphologies via DECODE, a novel Discrete statistical sEmi-empiriCal mODEl
• Ground-based Pa$\alpha$ Narrow-band Imaging of Local Luminous Infrared Galaxies II: Bulge Structure And Star Formation Activity
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: How the stellar populations of passive central galaxies depend on stellar and halo mass
• Hierarchal formation and growth of galaxies through dynamical friction
• Scaling Relations Between Low-mass Black Holes and Their Host Galaxies
• Galaxy Mass Assembly with VLT & HST and lessons for E-ELT/MOSAIC
• The Formation of Large Galactic Disks: Revival or Survival?
• Can AI Dream of Unseen Galaxies? Conditional Diffusion Model for Galaxy Morphology Augmentation
• The 5 Gyr evolution of sub-M* galaxies
• Ergodicity of FIRE: star formation variations within and between simulated galaxies