The merger rate of galaxies in the Illustris Simulation: a comparison with observations and semi-empirical models

Abstract

We have constructed merger trees for galaxies in the Illustris Simulation by directly tracking the baryonic content of subhalos. These merger trees are used to calculate the galaxy-galaxy merger rate as a function of descendant stellar mass, progenitor stellar mass ratio, and redshift. We demonstrate that the most appropriate definition for the mass ratio of a galaxy-galaxy merger consists in taking both progenitor masses at the time when the secondary progenitor reaches its maximum stellar mass. Additionally, we avoid effects from `orphaned' galaxies by allowing some objects to `skip' a snapshot when finding a descendant, and by only considering mergers which show a well-defined `infall' moment. Adopting these definitions, we obtain well-converged predictions for the galaxy-galaxy merger rate with the following main features, which are qualitatively similar to the halo-halo merger rate except for the last one: a strong correlation with redshift that evolves as $\sim (1+z{)}^{2.4-2.8}$, a power law with respect to mass ratio, and an increasing dependence on descendant stellar mass, which steepens significantly for descendant stellar masses greater than $\sim 2\times 10^{11}{\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$. These trends are consistent with observational constraints for medium-sized galaxies ($M_{\ast }\gtrsim 10^{10}{\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$), but in tension with some recent observations of the close pair fraction for massive galaxies ($M_{\ast }\gtrsim 10^{11}{\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$), which report a nearly constant or decreasing evolution with redshift. Finally, we provide a fitting function for the galaxy-galaxy merger rate which is accurate over a wide range of stellar masses, progenitor mass ratios, and redshifts.

17 pages, 10 figures, MNRAS published. The official Illustris website can be found at http://www.illustris-project.org/

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• The Origin of Stars in the Inner 500 Parsecs in TNG50 Galaxies
• Supermassive Binary Black Hole Evolution can be traced by a small SKA Pulsar Timing Array
• Brought to Light II: Revealing the Origins of Cloaked Spiral Features in Cluster Passive Dwarf Galaxies
• The Physical Origin of the Mass-Size Relation and Its Scatter of Disk Galaxies
• High Resolution spatial analysis of a z $\sim$ 2 lensed galaxy using adaptive coadded source-plane reconstruction
• Identifying the progenitors of present-day early-type galaxies in observational surveys: correcting `progenitor bias' using the Horizon-AGN simulation
• On the likelihoods of finding very metal-poor (and old) stars in the Milky Way's disc, bulge, and halo
• ERGO-ML: Towards a robust machine learning model for inferring the fraction of accreted stars in galaxies from integral-field spectroscopic maps
• A Halo Occupation Interpretation Of Quasars At $z\sim 1.5$ Using Very Small Scale Clustering Information
• The Origin of the Relation Between Stellar Angular Momentum and Stellar Mass in Nearby Disk-dominated galaxies
• Farpoint: A High-Resolution Cosmology Simulation at the Gigaparsec Scale
• JADES: Rest-frame UV-to-NIR Size Evolution of Massive Quiescent Galaxies from Redshift z=5 to z=0.5
• The formation pathways of compact elliptical galaxies
• Merger Histories and Environments of Dwarf AGN in IllustrisTNG
• Metallicity and Age of the Stellar Stream Around the Disk Galaxy NGC 5907
• The metallicity and star formation activity of long gamma-ray burst hosts for z$<$3: insights from the Illustris simulation
• Modelling the galaxy-halo connection with semi-recurrent neural networks
• The Extended Disk Galaxy Exploration Science Survey: Description and Surface Brightness Profile Properties
• On the accuracy of dark matter halo merger trees and the consequences for semi-analytic models of galaxy formation
• The rate and contribution of mergers to mass assembly from NIRCam observations of galaxy candidates up to 13.3 billion years ago
• Non-parametric Morphologies of Mergers in the Illustris Simulation
• Merger history of central galaxies in Semi-Analytic Models of galaxy formation
• Empirical derivation of the metallicity evolution with time and radius using TNG50 Milky Way/Andromeda analogues
• Evolution of central galaxy alignments in simulations
• How the Galaxy-Halo Connection Depends on Large-Scale Environment
• The imprint of galaxy mergers on satellite planes in a cosmological context
• A giant thin stellar stream in the Coma Galaxy Cluster
• JWST reveals a high fraction of disk breaks at $1\le z\le 3$
• Remnants of recent mergers in nearby early-type galaxies and their classification
• The Structural Evolution of Isolated Galaxies at Low Redshift in the IllustrisTNG Simulation
• The transformation and quenching of simulated gas-rich dwarf satellites within a group environment
• Galaxy formation physics behind bar formation: A view from cosmological hydrodynamical simulations
• Evolution of Starburst Galaxies in the Illustris Simulation
• Galaxies with kinematically distinct cores in Illustris
• IllustrisTNG Insights: Factors Affecting the Presence of Bars in Disk Galaxies
• A Candidate Dual QSO at Cosmic Noon
• FORECAST: a flexible software to forward model cosmological hydrodynamical simulations mimicking real observations
• Hierarchical generative models for star clusters from hydro-dynamical simulations
• Quenching, Mergers and Age Profiles for z=2 Galaxies in IllustrisTNG
• Toward a Physical Understanding of Galaxy-Halo Alignment
• The parallelism between galaxy clusters and early-type galaxies: I. The light and mass profiles
• Unexpected dancing partners: Tracing the coherence between the spin and motion of dark matter halos
• Living with Neighbors. III. The Origin of the Spin$-$Orbit Alignment of Galaxy Pairs: A Neighbor versus the Large-scale Structure
• Testing the Breathing Mode in Intermediate Mass Galaxies and its Predicted Star Formation Rate-Size Anti-Correlation
• MAHGIC: A Model Adapter for the Halo-Galaxy Inter-Connection
• Late-formed halos prefer to host quiescent central galaxies. I. Observational results
• Influence of the Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus on the density shape of the Galactic stellar halo revealed by halo K giants from the LAMOST survey
• Emulating Sunyaev-Zeldovich Images of Galaxy Clusters using Auto-Encoders
• The cooler past of the intracluster medium in TNG-Cluster
• MOSEL survey: JWST reveals major mergers/strong interactions drive the extreme emission lines in the early universe
• Painting baryons onto N-body simulations of galaxy clusters with image-to-image deep learning
• Merger Effects on the Spin and Shape Alignments of Galaxy Stellar, Cold and Hot Gas, and Dark Matter Components
• Questioning Planck-selected star-forming high-redshift galaxy protoclusters and their fate
• Not Hydro: Using Neural Networks to estimate galaxy properties on a Dark-Matter-Only simulation
• The Abundance of X-Shaped Radio Sources: Implications for the Gravitational Wave Background
• Cold Gas in Massive Galaxies as A Critical Test of Black Hole Feedback Models
• MOSEL Survey: Tracking the Growth of Massive Galaxies at 2<z<4 using Kinematics and the IllustrisTNG Simulation
• Relating galaxies across different redshift to study galaxy evolution
• Formation of super-thin galaxies in Illustris-TNG
• The ecology of dark matter haloes I: The rates and types of halo interactions
• Modelling Dark Matter Halo Spin using Observations and Simulations: application to UGC 5288
• Probing the Delay Time of Supermassive Black Hole Binary Mergers With Gravitational Waves
• Evolution of the grain size distribution in Milky Way-like galaxies in post-processed IllustrisTNG simulations
• Connection between galaxy morphology and dark-matter halo structure I: a running threshold for thin discs and size predictors from the dark sector
• Mock Galaxy Surveys for HST and JWST from the IllustrisTNG Simulations
• A machine learning approach to infer the accreted stellar mass fractions of central galaxies in the TNG100 simulation
• How to empirically model star formation in dark matter halos: I. Inferences about central galaxies from numerical simulations
• The Similar Signatures of Coplanar Gas Inflow and Disk Warps in Galactic Gas Kinematic Maps
• A Markov Chain Monte Carlo approach for measurement of jet precession in radio-loud active galactic nuclei
• MEGA: Merger graphs of structure formation
• H${}_3^{+}$ absorption and emission in local U/LIRGs with JWST/NIRSpec: Evidence for high H${}_2$ ionization rates
• Origin of stellar prolate rotation in a cosmologically simulated faint dwarf galaxy
• The relationship between galaxy and halo sizes in the Illustris and IllustrisTNG simulations
• A fixed point for black hole distributions
• The Magellanic Clouds are very rare in the IllustrisTNG simulations
• Spectroscopy of NGC 4258 globular cluster candidates: membership confirmation and kinematics
• Implications of galaxy buildup for putative IMF variations in massive galaxies
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: Unveiling Galaxy Interaction by Merger Stages with Machine Learning
• The ASTRID Simulation at z=0: From Massive Black Holes to Large-scale Structure
• On the detectability of massive black hole merger eventsby LISA
• Spectroscopically Identified Emission Line Galaxy Pairs in the WISP survey
• Star Formation in Massive Galaxies at Redshift $z\sim 0.5$
• MOSEL and IllustrisTNG: Massive Extended Galaxies at z=2 Quench Later Than Normal-size Galaxies
• Stellar Metallicity of Galaxies: New Insight on the Formation and Evolution of Low Surface Brightness Galaxies in the IllustrisTNG Simulation
• The Origin of Massive Compact Galaxies: Lessons from IllustrisTNG
• The Last Journey. II. SMACC -- Subhalo Mass-loss Analysis using Core Catalogs
• Mass-morphology relation of TNG50 galaxies
• Comparing galaxy morphology in hydrodynamical simulation and in semi-analytic model
• Low Surface Brightness structures from annotated deep CFHT images: effects of the host galaxy's properties and environment
• A stochastic model to reproduce the star-formation history of individual galaxies in hydrodynamic simulations
• Scatter in the satellite galaxy SHMR: fitting functions, scaling relations & physical processes from the IllustrisTNG simulation
• Triple and Quadruple Black Holes in the ASTRID Simulation at $z\sim 2$
• Intra-Cluster Light as a Dynamical Clock for Galaxy Clusters: Insights from the MAGNETICUM, IllustrisTNG, Hydrangea and Horizon-AGN Simulations
• Galaxy populations in protoclusters at cosmic noon
• Anisotropic correlation functions as tracers of central galaxy alignments in simulations
• The diverse physical origins of stars in the dynamically hot bulge: CALIFA vs. IllustrisTNG
• IllustrisTNG Snapshots for 10 Gyr of Dynamical Evolution of Brightest Cluster Galaxies and Their Host Clusters
• Halo Growth and Merger Rates as a Cosmological Test
• DeepGalaxy: Deducing the Properties of Galaxy Mergers from Images Using Deep Neural Networks
• Gravitational Waves from Massive Black Hole Mergers in ASTRID: Predictions for LISA
• Haloes at the ragged edge: The importance of the splashback radius
• Quenched, bulge-dominated, but dynamically cold galaxies in IllustrisTNG and their real-world counterparts
• Early-type galaxy density profiles from IllustrisTNG: III. Effects on outer kinematic structure
• A Deep Learning Approach for Characterizing Major Galaxy Mergers
• Host Galaxy Demographics Of Individually Detectable Supermassive Black-hole Binaries with Pulsar Timing Arrays
• Spin speed correlations and the evolution of galaxy-halo systems
• Active galactic nuclei feedback in an elliptical galaxy (III): the impacts and fate of cosmological inflow
• The survival of stellar discs in Fornax-like environments, from TNG50 to real galaxies
• Merging Galaxies in Isolated Environments II. Evolution of Star Formation and Accretion Activity during the Merging Process
• Asymmetric Drift of Andromeda Analogs in the IllustrisTNG Simulation
• Astraeus VII: The environmental-dependent assembly of galaxies in the Epoch of Reionization
• Determining the time before or after a galaxy merger event
• Galaxy Zoo JWST: Up to 75% of discs are featureless at $3<z<7$
• Cosmological Simulations of Stellar Halos with Gaia Sausage-Enceladus Analogues: Two Sausages, One Bun?
• Two Channels of Metal-Rich Compact Stellar System Formation: Starbursts under High Ram Pressure versus Tidal Stripping
• Evidence for Non-smooth Quenching in Massive Galaxies at $z\sim 1$
• The redshift evolution of galactic bar pattern speed in TNG50
• Cluster Assembly Times as a Cosmological Test
• An interesting case of the formation and evolution of a barred galaxy in the cosmological context
• ALPINE: A Large Survey to Understand Teenage Galaxies
• NOEMA${}^{3D}$: A first kpc resolution study of a $z\sim 1.5$ main sequence barred galaxy channeling gas into a growing bulge
• The Most Massive Early-type Galaxies Exhibit Tidal Features More Frequently in Lower-density Environments
• Circumbinary discs from tidal disruption events
• A two-phase model of galaxy formation: III. The formation of globular clusters
• Realistic consecutive galaxy mergers form eccentric PTA sources
• The effects of the orbital configurations of mergers on reshaping galaxy structures
• What Drives Cluster Cool-Core Transformations? A Population Level Analysis of TNG-Cluster
• Isolated dark matter deprived galaxies in hydrodynamical simulations: real objects or artefacts?
• A post-merger enhancement only in star-forming Type 2 Seyfert galaxies: the deep learning view
• Evolution of massive quiescent galaxies via envelope accretion
• Premature supermassive black hole mergers in cosmological simulations of structure formation
• Estimation of the Galaxy Quenching Rate in the Illustris Simulation
• Multi-Epoch Machine Learning 2: Identifying physical drivers of galaxy properties in simulations
• Orbit properties of massive prolate galaxies in the Illustris simulation
• Causal Discovery in Astrophysics: Unraveling Supermassive Black Hole and Galaxy Coevolution
• Effects of spin on constraining the seeds and growth of $\gtrsim 10^9{M}_{\odot }$ supermassive black holes in $z>6.5$ Quasars
• Inferring Mbh-Mbulge Evolution from the Gravitational Wave Background
• Shape and connectivity of groups and clusters: Impact of dynamical state and accretion history
• Quantifying the Impact of Incompleteness on Identifying and Interpreting Galaxy Protocluster Populations with the TNG-Cluster Simulation
• Shedding light on the star formation rate-halo accretion rate connection and halo quenching mechanism via DECODE, the Discrete statistical sEmi-empiriCal mODEl
• The Environment of Lyman Break Analogues (ELBA) survey: Star-forming galaxies in small groups
• The impact of ram pressure on cluster galaxies, insights from GAEA and TNG
• Applying unsupervised learning to resolve evolutionary histories and explore the galaxy-halo connection in IllustrisTNG
• Ultra-low-frequency gravitational waves from individual supermassive black hole binaries as standard sirens
• C2-GaMe: Classification of Cluster Galaxy Membership with Machine Learning
• Probing the earliest phases in the formation of massive galaxies with simulated HST+JWST imaging data from Illustris
• Intrinsic correlations of galaxy sizes in a hydrodynamical cosmological simulation
• A MaNGA view of isolated galaxy mergers in the star-forming Main Sequence
• The Density Parity Model for the Evolution of the Subhalo Inner Spin Alignments with the Cosmic Web
• Modeling submillimeter galaxies in cosmological simulations: Contribution to the cosmic star formation density and predictions for future surveys
• ZFIRE: The Beginning of the End for Massive Galaxies at z ~ 2 and Why Environment Matters
• The evolution of low-mass central galaxies in the vicinity of massive structures and its impact on the two-halo conformity
• Physical Processes Behind the Co-Evolution of Halos, Galaxies and Supermassive Black Holes in the IllustrisTNG Simulation
• The assembly of the most rotationally supported disc galaxies in the TNG100 simulations
• Evolution of dwarf galaxy observable parameters
• Self-Similar Buildup and Inside-Out Growth: Tracing the Evolution of Intermediate to High-Mass Star-Forming Galaxies Since $z=2$
• Tiny galaxies and dark substructures: exploring the "dark" subhaloes in TNG50
• How the Galaxy Stellar Spins Acquire a Peculiar Tidal Connection?
• Time-average properties of $z\sim 0.6$ major mergers: mergers significantly scatter high-z scaling relations
• The weak connection between the stellar haloes and merger histories of Milky Way-mass galaxies
• Distinguishing the formation paths of massive compact ETGs through their internal dynamical structures
• Stellar-gas kinematic misalignments in EAGLE: lifetimes and longevity of misaligned galaxies
• An optically-dark merging system at z~6 detected by JWST
• A Shallow Slope for the Stellar Mass--Angular Momentum Relation of Star-Forming Galaxies at $1.5<z<2.5$
• Environmental history of filament galaxies: stellar mass assembly and star-formation of filament galaxies
• Tracing the cosmological origin of gas that fuels in situ star formation in TNG50 galaxies
• Measurement of the evolving galaxy luminosity and mass function using clustering-based redshift inference
• ACACIA: a new method to produce on-the-fly merger trees in the RAMSES code
• AGN -- host galaxy photometric decomposition using a fast, accurate and precise deep learning approach
• Binary neutron star merger offsets from their host galaxies II. Short-duration gamma-ray bursts
• The evolution of the barred galaxy population in the TNG50 simulation
• The roles of environment and interactions on the evolution of red and blue galaxies in the EAGLE simulation
• Classifying merger stages with adaptive deep learning and cosmological hydrodynamical simulations
• ZFIRE -- The Gas Inflow Inequality for Satellite Galaxies in Cluster and Field Halos at z = 2
• Merger Tree-based Galaxy Matching: A Comparative Study Across Different Resolutions
• Estimating infall times of galaxies around clusters: how accurately can it be done with observational data?
• Lower-Luminosity Obscured AGN Host Galaxies are Not Predominantly in Major-Merging Systems at Cosmic Noon
• Merging history of massive galaxies at 3<z<6
• Dynamics of merging: Post-merger mixing and relaxation of an Illustris galaxy
• Describing the Nonuniversal Galaxy Merger Timescales in IllustrisTNG: Effects of Host Halo Mass, Baryons, and Sample Selection
• From Halos to Galaxies. X: Decoding Galaxy SEDs with Physical Priors and Accurate Star Formation History Reconstruction
• Numerical effects on the stripping of dark matter and stars in IllustrisTNG galaxy groups and clusters
• The global warming of group satellite galaxies
• Magnetic fields in the intracluster medium with TNG-Cluster: properties, morphology, and tangential anisotropy
• Bulgeless Evolution And the Rise of Discs (BEARD) II. The role of mergers in shaping the Milky Way analogues in TNG50
• Accreted stars and stellar haloes of simulated galaxies in TNG50
• The Outskirt Stellar Mass of Low-Redshift Massive Galaxies is an Excellent Halo Mass Proxy in Illustris/IllustrisTNG Simulations
• A Conditional Abundance Matching Method of Extending Simulated Halo Merger Trees to Resolve Low-Mass Progenitors and Sub-halos
• Disc instability and bar formation: view from the IllustrisTNG simulations
• The abundance and origin of cool gas in galaxy clusters in the TNG-Cluster simulation
• Reconstructing the Assembly of Massive Galaxies. III: Quiescent Galaxies Loose Angular Momentum as They Evolve in a Mass-dependent Fashion
• CosmoGLINT: Cosmological Generative Model for Line Intensity Mapping with Transformer
• Contaminating Electromagnetic Transients in LISA Gravitational Wave Localization Volumes. I: The Intrinsic Rates
• Characterizing CO Emitters in the SSA22-AzTEC26 Field
• The multi-component fitting to the star formation histories in the TNG simulation
• The Milky Way and M31 Orbital History: Did the Local Group evolve in isolation?
• Galaxy-halo internal alignments across cosmic time
• The major merger-active galactic nucleus connection up to the cosmic noon
• Systematics in ETG Mass Profile Modelling: Strong Lensing & Stellar Dynamics
• Mapping the Distorted Dark Matter Distribution of the LMC-SMC System Prior to Milky Way Infall with Basis Function Expansions
• DeepMerge: Classifying High-redshift Merging Galaxies with Deep Neural Networks
• Heterogeneity of Inverted Calcium II H:K Ratio Cluster Galaxies
• Testing the key role of the stellar mass-halo mass relation in galaxy merger rates and morphologies via DECODE, a novel Discrete statistical sEmi-empiriCal mODEl
• Newcomers and suburbanites can drive the evolution of the size-stellar mass relation of early type galaxies in galaxy clusters
• High and low Sérsic index bulges in Milky Way- and M31-like galaxies: origin and connection to the bar with TNG50
• Dual AGN in the Horizon-AGN simulation and their link to galaxy and massive black hole mergers, with an excursus on multiple AGN
• Estimating Transient Rates from Cosmological Simulations and BPASS
• Mesoscopic Energy Ranking Constraints in the IllustrisTNG Simulations
• Exploring the effect of baryons on the radial distribution of satellite galaxies with GAMA and IllustrisTNG
• Unravelling the role of merger histories in the population of In situ stars: linking IllustrisTNG cosmological simulation to H3 survey
• Extreme Metallicity Dwarf Galaxies in IllustrisTNG
• Galaxy mergers can initiate quenching by unlocking an AGN-driven transformation of the baryon cycle
• The History of Galaxy Mergers in IllustrisTNG
• A Population Study for Searching Supermassive Binary Black Holes in Active Galactic Nuclei: Continuum Spectral Features and Periodic Variabilities
• Host galaxies and electromagnetic counterparts to binary neutron star mergers across the cosmic time: Detectability of GW170817-like events
• A Simulation Driven Deep Learning Approach for Separating Mergers and Star Forming Galaxies: The Formation Histories of Clumpy Galaxies in all the CANDELS Fields
• Size-Mass Relation Shows Its Colours: Contrasting Physical Imprints of Galaxy Evolution in Rest-Frame UV and Optical
• Bulgeless Evolution And the Rise of Discs (BEARD) III. A numerical simulation view of satellites around Milky-Way analogues
• Gravitational Wave Measurement of the $M_{\mathrm{BH}}$-$M_{\mathrm{bulge}}$ Intrinsic Scatter at High Redshift
• Spatially non-parametric recovery of intrinsic kinematic maps in pre- to post-merger galaxies
• The major merger origin of the Andromeda II kinematics
• Stellar populations of stellar halos: Results from the Illustris simulation