Revisiting the Unified Model of Active Galactic Nuclei

Abstract

This review describes recent developments related to the unified model of active galactic nuclei (AGN). It focuses on new ideas about the origin and properties of the central obscurer (torus), and the connection with its surrounding. The review does not address radio unification. AGN tori must be clumpy but the uncertainties about their properties are still large. Todays most promising models involve disk winds of various types and hydrodynamical simulations that link the large scale galactic disk to the inner accretion flow. IR studies greatly improved the understanding of the spectral energy distribution of AGNs but they are hindered by various selection effects. X-ray samples are more complete. A basic relationship which is still unexplained is the dependence of the torus covering factor on luminosity. There is also much confusion regarding "real type-II AGNs" that do not fit into a simple unification scheme. The most impressive recent results are due to IR interferometry, which is not in accord with most torus models, and the accurate mapping of central ionization cones. AGN unification may not apply to merging systems and is possibly restricted to secularly evolving galaxies.

To appear in Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics (ARAA) vol. 53 (2015)

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• Ensemble power spectral density of SDSS quasars in UV/optical bands
• Effects of extended components of \oiii on the correlation between the \oiii luminosity and the power-law continuum luminosity for active galactic nuclei
• Morphology of AGN Emission Line Regions in SDSS-IV MaNGA Survey
• Observational hints on the torus obscuring gas behaviour through X-rays with NuSTAR data
• Spectral and polarization properties of reflected X-ray emission from black-hole accretion discs for a distant observer: the lamp-post model
• Properties of the Obscuring Torus in NGC 1052 from Multi-epoch Broadband X-ray Spectroscopy
• The Chandra/HETG view of NGC 1365 in a Compton-thick state
• Estimating supermassive black hole masses in AGNs using polarization of broad MgII, H$\alpha$ and H$\beta$ lines
• A novel Bayesian approach for decomposing the radio emission of quasars: I. Modelling the radio excess in red quasars
• Hunting for Metals Using XQ-100 Legacy Survey Composite Spectra
• Constraining AGN Torus Sizes with Optical and Mid-Infrared Ensemble Structure Functions
• Years Delayed X-ray Afterglows of TDEs Originated from Wind-Torus Interactions
• Warm Absorbers in the Radiation-driven Fountain Model of Low-mass Active Galactic Nuclei
• BAT AGN Spectroscopic Survey -- XIII. The nature of the most luminous obscured AGN in the low-redshift universe
• Automatized photometric monitoring of active galactic nuclei with the 46 cm telescope of the Wise observatory
• The luminosity dependence of quasar UV continuum slope: dust extinction scenario
• The Paschen Jump as a Diagnostic of the Diffuse Nebular Continuum Emission in Active Galactic Nuclei
• Host galaxy and orientation differences between AGN different types
• Possible Evidence of a Universal Radio/X-ray Correlation in a near-Complete Sample of Hard X-ray Selected Seyfert Galaxies
• Host galaxy properties and environment of obscured and unobscured X-ray selected Active Galactic Nuclei in the COSMOS survey
• Circumnuclear Multi-phase Gas in Circinus Galaxy IV: absorption owing to high-$J$ CO rotational transitions
• Dissecting the active galactic nucleus in Circinus -- III. VLT/FORS2 polarimetry confirms dusty cone illuminated by a tilted accretion disc
• A unifying evolutionary framework for infrared-selected obscured and unobscured quasar host haloes
• Physical parameters of the torus for the type 2 Seyfert IC 5063 from mid-IR and X-ray simultaneous spectral fitting
• The impact of AGN outflows on the surface habitability of terrestrial planets in the Milky Way
• Kinematics of the H$\alpha$ and H$\beta$ broad line region in an SDSS sample of type 1 AGNs
• Physical properties of the CDFS X-ray sources through fitting spectral energy distributions
• Investigating the {Origin} of the Absorption-Line Variability in Narrow-Line Seyfert 1 Galaxy WPVS 007
• Extreme nature of four blue-excess dust-obscured galaxies revealed by optical spectroscopy
• The properties of the X-ray corona in the distant ($z=3.91$) quasar APM 08279+5255
• Down-the-barrel observations of a multiphase quasar outflow at high redshift: VLT/X-shooter spectroscopy of the proximate molecular absorber at z=2.631 towards SDSS J001514+184212
• The nascent milliquasar VT J154843.06+220812.6: tidal disruption event or extreme accretion-state change?
• Exploring the spectral variability of the Seyfert 1.5 galaxy Markarian 530 with Suzaku
• Is there a sub-parsec-scale jet base in the nearby dwarf galaxy NGC 4395?
• Transient obscuration event captured in NGC 3227 III. Photoionization modeling of the X-ray obscuration event in 2019
• Host Dark Matter Halos of SDSS Red and Blue Quasars: No Significant Difference in Large-scale Environment
• Polarization of Rayleigh scattered Lyα in active galactic nuclei
• Dusty plasma in active galactic nuclei
• Wavelength-resolved reverberation mapping of intermediate redshift quasars HE 0413-4031 and HE 0435-4312: Dissecting Mg II, optical Fe II, and UV Fe II emission regions
• The Most Obscured AGNs in the XMM-SERVS Fields
• The inner view of NGC 1052 using multiple X-ray observations
• Stability of Gas Clouds in Galactic Nuclei: An Extended Virial Theorem
• Polar Dust Emission in Quasar IR SEDs and Its Correlation with Narrow Line Regions
• MeerKAT follow-up of enigmatic GLEAM 4-Jy (G4Jy) sources
• UV bright red-sequence galaxies: how do UV upturn systems evolve in redshift and stellar mass?
• Infrared Interferometry and AGNs: Parsec-scale Disks and Dusty Outflows
• Spatially Resolved Patchy Lyman-$\alpha$ Emission Within the Central Kiloparsec of a Strongly Lensed Quasar Host Galaxy at z = 2.8
• Wavelength-resolved Reverberation Mapping of quasar CTSC30.10: Dissecting MgII and FeII emission regions
• The $XXL$ survey: XL. Obscuration properties of red AGN in $XXL-N$
• Physical properties of hyperluminous, dust-obscured quasars at $z\sim 3$: multiwavelength Spectral Energy Distribution analysis and cold gas content revealed by ALMA
• Measuring the AGN sublimation radius with a new approach: reverberation mapping of the broad line polarization
• Blazar Sheath Illumination of the Outer Molecular Torus: A Resolution of the Seed Photon Problem for the far-GeV Blazar flares
• Numerical Study on Outflows in Seyfert Galaxies I: Narrow Line Region Outflows in NGC 4151
• Constraining X-ray reflection in the low-luminosity AGN NGC 3718 using NuSTAR and XMM--Newton
• BLR size in Realistic FRADO Model: The role of shielding effect
• AGN Light Echoes and the Accretion Disc Self-Gravity Limit
• SDSS J1058+5443: A blue quasar does not have optical/NUV broad emission lines
• Thermal instability in radiation hydrodynamics: instability mechanisms, position-dependent S-curves, and attenuation curves
• AGN in the CALIFA survey: X-ray detection of nuclear sources
• Classification of the \emph{Fermi}-LAT Blazar Candidates of Uncertain type using eXtreme Gradient Boosting
• Dust Dynamics in AGN Winds: A New Mechanism For Multiwavelength AGN Variability
• Statistical analysis of AlIII 1860 and CIII] 1909 emission lines as virial black hole mass estimators in quasars
• Coevolution of broad emission lines and X-ray spectrum in changing-look AGNs
• Surveys of the Cosmic X-ray Background
• Spontaneous Formation of Outflows Powered by Rotating Magnetized Accretion Flows in a Galactic Center
• A Giant Loop of Ionized Gas Emerging from the Tumultuous Central Region of IC 5063
• Multiphase Circumnuclear Gas in a Low-$\beta$ Disk: Turbulence and Magnetic Field Reversals
• Estimating black hole masses: Accretion disk fitting versus reverberation mapping and single epoch
• The mineralogy of newly formed dust in active galactic nuclei
• The interaction of the active nucleus with the host galaxy interstellar medium
• Dissecting the active galactic nucleus in Circinus IV. MUSE NFM observations unveil a tuning-fork ionised gas morphology
• Systematic research of low redshift optically selected SDSS Type-2 AGN but with apparent long-term optical variabilities from Catalina Sky Survey, I: data sample and basic results
• The hot dust in the heart of NGC 1068's torus: A 3D radiative model constrained with GRAVITY/VLTi
• A VLA-GMRT Look at 11 Powerful FR II Quasars
• A SysTematic seaRch fOr Dual Agns in meRgINg Galaxies (ASTRO-DARING) III: results from the SDSS spectroscopic surveys
• X-ray AGN in Boötes: The lack of growth of the most massive black holes since z=4
• Clustering, Cosmology and a New Era of Black Hole Demographics -- II. The Conditional Luminosity Functions of Type 2 and Type 1 Active Galactic Nuclei
• RMS-Flux Relation and Disc-Jet Connection in Blazars in the Context of the Internal Shocks Model
• Broad-line Region Clouds orbiting an AGN sample
• Resolving galactic-scale obscuration of X-ray AGN at $z\gtrsim 1$ with COSMOS-Web
• The eROSITA Final Equatorial Depth Survey (eFEDS): SDSS spectroscopic observations of X-ray sources
• Mapping AGN winds: a connection between radio-mode AGN and the AGN feedback cycle
• Measurement of AGN dust extinction based on the near-infrared flux variability of WISE data
• The Impact of the Dusty Torus on Obscured Quasar Halo Mass Measurements
• Covering factors of the dusty obscurers in radio-loud and radio-quiet quasars
• AGN types and unification model
• Forgotten treasures in the HST/FOC UV imaging polarimetric archives of active galactic nuclei. I. Pipeline and benchmarking against NGC~1068 and exploring IC~5063
• Multi-wavelength study of NGC 1365: The obscured active nucleus and off-nuclear compact X-ray sources
• A candidate Optically Quiescent Quasar lacking narrow emission lines
• X-ray Simulations of Polar Gas in Accreting Supermassive Black Holes
• Extended hard X-ray emission in highly obscured AGN
• Seyfert 1 Composite Spectrum using SDSS Legacy Survey Data
• The XMM spectral catalog of SDSS optically selected Seyfert 2 galaxies
• Multi-wavelength properties of three new radio-powerful $z\sim 5.6$ quasi-stellar objects discovered from RACS
• Chandra Observations of Excess Fe K$\alpha$ Line Emission in Galaxies with High Star Formation Rates: X-ray Reflection on Galaxy Scales?
• Estimating black hole masses in obscured AGN using X-rays
• Probing the roles of orientation and multi-scale gas distributions in shaping the obscuration of Active Galactic Nuclei through cosmic time
• Long-term variability of the composite galaxy SDSS J103911-000057: A candidate of true Type-2 AGN
• AT 2018dyk: tidal disruption event or active galactic nucleus? Follow-up observations of an extreme coronal line emitter with the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument
• Efficient Analysis Routines for Single and Double Peaked Type 2 AGN Spectra
• X-ray spectral properties of dust-obscured galaxies in the XMM-SERVS coverage of the XMM-LSS field
• The Extragalactic Serendipitous Swift Survey (ExSeSS) -- I. Survey definition and measurements of the X-ray number counts
• The optically elusive, changing-look active nucleus in NGC 4156
• Modeling the Vertical Structure of Nuclear Starburst Discs: A Possible Source of AGN Obscuration at $z\sim 1$
• An interacting galaxy pair at the origin of a light echo
• JWST reveals the diversity of nuclear obscuring dust in nearby AGN: nuclear isolation of MIRI/MRS datacubes and continuum spectral fitting
• A jet-dominated model for a broad-band spectral energy distribution of the nearby low-luminosity active galactic nucleus in M94
• Science with the $AstroSat$ Soft X-ray Telescope: an overview
• A SysTematic seaRch fOr Dual Agns in meRgINg Galaxies (ASTRO-DARING) II: first results from long-slit spectroscopic observations
• A complex dust morphology in the high-luminosity AGN Mrk 876
• A catalogue of candidate milli-parsec separation massive black hole binaries from long term optical photometric monitoring
• The clumpy torus around type II AGN as revealed by X-ray fluorescent lines
• Multi-epoch hard X-ray view of Compton-thick AGN Circinus Galaxy
• Relativistic reflection in NGC 4151
• Velocity-Resolved Ionization Mapping of Broad Line Region. I. Insights into Diverse Geometry and Kinematics
• X-ray spectral and timing analysis of the Compton Thick Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 1068
• The role of molecular gas in the nuclear regions of IRAS 00183-7111. ALMA and X-ray investigations of an ultraluminous infrared galaxy
• Multiple Emission Regions in Jets of Low Luminosity Active Galactic Nucleus in NGC 4278
• WISE2MBH: A scaling-based algorithm for probing supermassive black hole masses through WISE catalogues
• Optical Spectropolarimetric Variability Properties in Blazars PKS 0637-75 and PKS 1510-089
• Spectral variability studies in Active Galactic Nuclei: Exploring continuum and emission line regions in the age of LSST and JWST
• Active galactic nuclei catalog from the AKARI NEP Wide field
• XMM-Newton and NuSTAR joint observations of Mrk 915: a deep look into the X-ray properties
• On the Origin of the Dramatic Spectral Variability of WPVS 007
• Update of the INTEGRAL/IBIS AGN catalogue: deeper on the Galactic plane and wider beyond
• The near-infrared SED of blue quasars: what drives the evolution of the dusty torus?
• The XXL Survey. XLI. Radio AGN luminosity functions based on the GMRT $610\mathrm{MHz}$ continuum observations
• A weakening Compton hump and soft X-ray excess detected in the Seyfert-1 galaxy MCG-02-58-22
• Improved selection of extremely red quasars with boxy CIV lines in BOSS
• Massive black holes in high-redshift Lyman Break Galaxies
• A comparative study of the physical properties for a representative sample of Narrow and Broad-line Seyfert galaxies
• Galaxy Properties Derived with Spectral Energy Distribution Fitting in the Hawaii-Hubble Deep Field-North
• UV-FIR SED modeling of AGN in IR-luminous galaxies up to z~2.5: Understanding the effects of torus models
• Dynamic and Radiative Implications of Jet-Star Interactions in AGN Jets
• The Shape of the Cosmic X-ray Background: Nuclear Starburst Discs and the Redshift Evolution of AGN Obscuration
• Impact of AGN and nuclear star formation on the ISM turbulence of galaxies: Insights from JWST/MIRI spectroscopy
• Physical Models for the Clustering of Obscured and Unobscured Quasars
• Constraining the Active Galactic Nucleus and Starburst Properties of the IR-luminous Quasar Host Galaxy APM 08279+5255 at Redshift 4 with SOFIA
• Extinction and AGN over host galaxy contrast effects on the optical spectroscopic classification of AGN
• Large-scale clustering of buried X-ray AGN: Trends in AGN obscuration and redshift evolution
• Unravelling the orbits of cluster galaxy populations according to their dominant gas ionization source
• Probing the Extent of Fe K$\alpha$ Emission in Nearby Active Galactic Nuclei using Multi-Order Analysis of Chandra High Energy Transmission Grating Data
• Black hole-galaxy co-evolution and the role of feedback
• The Complex X-ray Obscuration Environment in the Radio Loud Type 2 Quasar 3C 223
• The impact of improved plasma diagnostics on modeling the X-ray Universe
• AGN Reverberation Mapping
• Hot graphite dust in the inner regime of NGC 4151
• X-ray absorption and 9.7 um silicate feature as a probe of AGN torus structure
• Gaia-assisted discovery of a detached low-ionisation BAL quasar with very large ejection velocities
• Red giant - jet collisions in galactic nuclei I: 3D hydrodynamical model of a few stellar orbits
• The detections of inflowing gas from narrow absorption lines at the parsec scale
• Influence of Comptonization region over the ambiance of accretion disc in Active Galactic Nucleus
• X-Ray Redshifts of Obscured Chandra Source Catalog AGN
• Quasar radiation transforms the gas in a merging companion galaxy
• The Disk Wind Contribution to the Gamma-Ray emission from the nearby Seyfert Galaxy GRS 1734-292
• Viewing angle effects in quasar application to cosmology
• A new approach to constraining properties of AGN host galaxies by combining image and SED decomposition: testing upon the MBH-M* relation
• On the emitting region of X-ray fluorescent lines around Compton-thick AGN
• Ray-tracing simulations of the Soft X-ray Scattered Emission in obscured Active Galactic Nuclei
• An Extremely Bright QSO at $z=2.89$
• A Systematic Study of the Short-Term X-ray Variability of Seyfert Galaxies I. Diversity of the X-ray Rms Spectra
• Regularized 3D spectroscopy with CubeFit: method and application to the Galactic Center Circumnuclear disk
• Investigating starburst-driven neutrino emission from galaxies in the Great Observatories All-Sky LIRG Survey
• Constraints on the optical polarization source in the luminous non-blazar quasar 3C 323.1 (PG 1545+210) from the photometric and polarimetric variability
• The Cold Dust Content of the Nearby Galaxies IC 5325, NGC 7496, NGC 7590, and NGC 7599
• On planet formation around supermassive black holes and the grain disruption barriers by radiative torques
• Active Galactic Nuclei and their demography through cosmic time
• On the Dark Matter Halos of Optical and IR-selected AGN in the Local Universe
• Hyper-massive Black Holes have Faint Broad and Narrow Emission Lines
• A Multi-Wavelength Characterization of the Obscuring Medium at the Center of NGC 6300
• Ultra High Energy Neutrino Event KM3-230213A as a Signal of Electroweak Vacuum Turbulence in Merging Black Hole Binaries
• QSO MUSEUM III: the circumgalactic medium in Ly$\alpha$ emission around 120 $z\sim 3$ quasars covering the SDSS parameter space. Witnessing the instantaneous AGN feedback on halo scales
• Shedding the envelope: JWST reveals a kiloparsec-scale [OIII]-weak Balmer shell around a z=7.64 quasar
• Accretion disc reverberation mapping of the quasar 3C 273
• A near-infrared, optical and ultraviolet polarimetric and timing investigation of complex equatorial dusty structures
• Multiwavelength Analysis of a Nearby Heavily Obscured AGN in NGC 449
• Ensemble Mapping the Inner Structure of Luminous Quasars
• Estimate of SMBH Spin for Narrow-Line Seyfert 1 Galaxies
• Search for high-energy neutrino emission from hard X-ray AGN with IceCube
• NuSTAR view of heavily absorbed AGN: The $R-N_{\text{H}}$ correlation
• Photoionization Modeling of the Low Luminosity Seyfert 1 Nucleus in NGC 3516
• From Nearby Low Luminosity AGN to High Redshift Radio Galaxies: Science Interests with SKA
• Metallicity Ceiling in Quasars from Recycled Stellar Winds
• Navigating AGN variability with self-organizing maps
• Quasar Main Sequence unfolded by 2.5D FRADO (Natural expression of Eddington ratio, black hole mass, and inclination)
• Systematic Study of the Inner Structure of Molecular Tori in Nearby U/LIRGs using Velocity Decomposition of CO Rovibrational Absorption Lines
• The viewing angle in AGN SED models, a data-driven analysis
• Ground-Based Mid-Infrared Study of the Compton-Thick AGN in M51 at 10-100 pc Scale
• The relationship between Mg II broad emission and quasar inclination angle
• A Spatially Resolved Evolutionary Sequence of Multi-wavelength AGN Host Galaxies
• Mg II line properties in lobe-dominated quasars
• The Nature of LoBAL QSOs: II. HST/WFC3 Observations Reveal Host Galaxies Dominated by Mergers
• Search for Quasar Pairs with $Gaia$ Astrometric Data. I. Method and Candidates
• The first spectroscopic IR reverberation programme on Mrk 509
• The ensemble broad-frequency power spectrum of Stripe-82 quasars from multiple surveys
• The Binding Energies of Atoms on Amorphous Silicate Dust: A Computational Study
• Spectral Energy Distribution Modeling of Broad Emission Line Quasars: From X-ray to Radio Wavelengths
• Obscured and unobscured X-ray AGNs I: Host galaxy properties
• The Faintest, Extremely Variable X-ray Tidal Disruption Event from a Supermassive Black Hole Binary?
• Towards an observationally motivated AGN dusty torus model -- II. The roles of density distribution and chemical composition of the dust
• The brightest X-ray AGNs at redshift $3\lesssim z\lesssim 6$
• Super-Accreting Active Galactic Nuclei as Neutrino Sources
• Development in astronomy in Ethiopia and East-Africa through nuclear activity in galaxies
• Tidal disruption event rates across cosmic time: forecasts for LSST, Roman, and JWST and their constraints on the supermassive black hole mass function
• Identifying Compton-thick active galactic nuclei in the COSMOS. II. Searching among mid-infrared selected AGNs
• A Decade of Near-Infrared Variability in NGC4388: Insights into the AGN Structure
• Particle dynamics in TOI-178 planetary system
• The Atacama Cosmology Telescope: Extragalactic Point Sources in the Southern Surveys at 150, 220 and 280 GHz observed between 2008-2010
• Selection of Compton-thick AGN from a hard photometric sample using XMM-Newton observations
• NIRDust: Probing Hot Dust Emission Around Type 2 AGN Using K-band Spectra
• Metal-strong Inflows at the Outer-galactic-scale of a Quasar
• A broadband X-ray study of a sample of AGNs with [OIII] measured inclinations
• Extreme variability quasars from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the Dark Energy Survey
• X-ray emission of radio-loud quasar SDSS J121426.52+140258.9: independent variations between optical/UV and X-ray emission
• Parsec-scale jet precession and a putative supermassive binary black hole system in the blazar AO 0235+164
• Unified models revisited I: modelling the effect of source geometry on radio galaxy/quasar unification
• Compton-thick AGN Characterisation in a Multi-wavelength Context: Insights from the 70-Month \textit{SWIFT}/BAT Catalogue
• The Dyson Minds 2025 Workshop: SETI around Black Holes
• Spectroscopic confirmation of dual and offset quasars from the Subaru HSC-SSP program
• A Population Study for Searching Supermassive Binary Black Holes in Active Galactic Nuclei: Continuum Spectral Features and Periodic Variabilities
• Revisiting Disk Winds in Active Galactic Nuclei as an Origin of Cosmic Gamma-ray and Neutrino Backgrounds
• The study of the circumnuclear environment of accreting supermassive black holes with realistic X-ray spectral models
• The optical-infrared relation for active galactic nuclei: The role of contaminations
• The late flare in tidal disruption events due to the interaction of disk wind with dusty torus
• UV bright red-sequence galaxies: a comparative study between UV upturn and UV weak systems
• ELFO: A Python Package for Emission Line Fitting Optimization in Integral Field Spectroscopy Data
• The Structure and Evolution of LRDs: Insights from JWST NIRSpec Medium and High Resolution Spectroscopy at $z\sim 4$
• Measurements of quasar proximity zones with the Ly$\alpha$ forest of DESI Y1 quasars
• Constraining the AGN tori at cosmic noon using high-resolution JWST imaging and simultaneous SED fitting
• Shape and ionization of equatorial matter near compact objects from X-ray polarization reflection signatures
• The properties of the obscuring material of an AGNs sample from mid-IR and X-ray simultaneous fitting
• Identification of high-redshift X-ray active galactic nuclei in the 4XMM-DR11 serendipitous catalogue using DES data: Comparative analysis with optically-selected QSOs
• Low-Eddington ratio, changing-look active galactic nuclei: the case of NGC 4614
• Is there a Blazar Nested in the Core of the Radio Galaxy 3C 411?
• Accretion rate in AGN and X-ray-to-optical flux ratio at z $\le$ 0.2
• X-Ray Evidence Against the Hypothesis that the Hyper-Luminous z=6.3 Quasar J0100+2802 is Lensed