Understanding Galaxy Evolution through Emission Lines

Abstract

We review the use of emission-lines for understanding galaxy evolution, focusing on excitation source, metallicity, ionization parameter, ISM pressure and electron density. We show that the UV, optical and infrared contain complementary diagnostics that can probe the conditions within different nebular ionization zones. In anticipation of upcoming telescope facilities, we provide new self-consistent emission-line diagnostic calibrations for complete spectral coverage from the UV to the infrared. These diagnostics can be used in concert to understand how fundamental galaxy properties have changed across cosmic time. We describe new 2D and 3D emission-line diagnostics to separate the contributions from star formation, AGN and shocks using integral field spectroscopy. We discuss the physics, benefits, and caveats of emission-line diagnostics, including the effect of theoretical model uncertainties, diffuse ionized gas, and sample selection bias. Accounting for complex density gradients and temperature profiles is critical for reliably estimating the fundamental properties of H ii regions and galaxies. Diffuse ionized gas can raise metallicity estimates, flatten metallicity gradients, and introduce scatter in ionization parameter measurements. We summarize with a discussion of the challenges and major opportunities for emission-line diagnostics in the coming years.

63 pages, 10 figures

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• The diffuse ionized gas (DIG) in star-forming galaxies: the influence of aperture effects on local HII regions
• Near-infrared emission line diagnostics for AGN from the local Universe to redshift 3
• The VANDELS survey: A strong correlation between Ly$\alpha$ equivalent width and stellar metallicity at $3\le \mathbf{z}\le 5$
• Molecular hydrogen in IllustrisTNG galaxies: carefully comparing signatures of environment with local CO & SFR data
• Optical and mid-infrared line emission in nearby Seyfert galaxies
• Hundreds of Low-Mass Active Galaxies in the Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA) Survey
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: spatially resolved dust attenuation in spiral galaxies
• The BPT Diagram in Cosmological Galaxy Formation Simulations: Understanding the Physics Driving Offsets at High-Redshift
• A comparison of UV and optical metallicities in star-forming galaxies
• Powerful t-SNE technique leading to clear separation of type-2 AGN and HII galaxies in BPT diagrams
• Archetype-Based Redshift Estimation for the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument Survey
• CLEAR: High-Ionization [Ne V] $\lambda$3426 Emission-line Galaxies at $1.4<z<2.3$
• The Past and Future of Mid-Infrared Studies of AGN
• CECILIA: The Faint Emission Line Spectrum of z~2-3 Star-forming Galaxies
• The properties of dwarf spheroidal galaxies in the Cen A group: Stellar populations, internal dynamics, and a heart-shaped Halpha ring
• Correlation between the gas-phase metallicity and ionization parameter in extragalactic HII regions
• HOMERUN a new approach to photoionization modelling. I -- reproducing observed emission lines with percent accuracy and obtaining accurate physical properties of the ionized gas
• A geostatistical analysis of multiscale metallicity variations in galaxies [I]: Introduction and comparison of high-resolution metallicity maps to an analytic metal transport model
• Autoencoding Galaxy Spectra I: Architecture
• Stromlo Stellar Tracks: non-solar scaled abundances for massive stars
• Recovery and analysis of rest-frame UV emission lines in 2052 galaxies observed with MUSE at $1.5<z<6.4$
• Reconstructing the observed ionizing photon production efficiency at z~2 using stellar population models
• LeMMINGs. III. The e-MERLIN Legacy Survey of the Palomar sample. Exploring the origin of nuclear radio emission in active and inactive galaxies through the [O III] -- radio connection
• An exquisitely deep view of quenching galaxies through the gravitational lens: Stellar population, morphology, and ionized gas
• A solar metallicity galaxy at $z>$ 7? Possible detection of the [N II] 122 $\mu$m and [O III] 52 $\mu$m lines
• Stellar associations powering HII regions $\unicode{x2013}$ I. Defining an evolutionary sequence
• GASP XXXV: Characteristics of the diffuse ionised gas in gas-stripped galaxies
• GA-NIFS: JWST/NIRSpec IFS view of the z~3.5 galaxy GS5001 and its close environment at the core of a large-scale overdensity
• Outflows, Shocks and Coronal Line Emission in a Radio-Selected AGN in a Dwarf Galaxy
• Detection of metallicity correlations in 100 nearby galaxies
• Physical Properties of Massive Compact Starburst Galaxies with Extreme Outflows
• Chemical abundances in Seyfert galaxies -IX. Helium abundance estimates
• SDSS-V Local Volume Mapper (LVM): A Glimpse into Orion
• The interplay between feedback, accretion, transport and winds in setting gas-phase metal distribution in galaxies
• Measuring Chemical Abundances with Infrared Nebular Lines: HII-Chi-mistry-IR
• What drives the scatter of local star-forming galaxies in the BPT diagrams? A Machine Learning based analysis
• Chemical abundances in the nuclear region of nearby galaxies from the Palomar Survey
• A re-assessment of strong line metallicity conversions in the machine learning era
• Gas-phase metallicity break radii of star-forming galaxies in IllustrisTNG
• A hidden active galactic nucleus powering bright [O III] nebulae in a protocluster at $z=4.5$ revealed by JWST
• Spatial metallicity distribution statistics at $\lesssim 100$ pc scales in the AMUSING++ nearby galaxy sample
• MCSED: A flexible spectral energy distribution fitting code and its application to $z\sim 2$ emission-line galaxies
• LIMFAST. I. A Semi-Numerical Tool for Line Intensity Mapping
• Stellar feedback in M83 as observed with MUSE -- I. Overview, an unprecedented view of the stellar and gas kinematics and evidence of outflowing gas
• AGN Feedback in Quiescent Galaxies at Cosmic Noon Traced by Ionized Gas Emission
• A giant shell of ionized gas discovered near M82 with the Dragonfly Spectral Line Mapper pathfinder
• Metal and dust evolution in ALMA REBELS galaxies: insights for future JWST observations
• MUSE-ALMA Haloes VII: Survey Science Goals & Design, Data Processing and Final Catalogues
• The Black Hole-Galaxy Connection: Interplay between Feedback, Obscuration, and Host Galaxy Substructure
• No correlation of the Lyman continuum escape fraction with spectral hardness
• The multifarious ionization sources and disturbed kinematics of extraplanar gas in five low-mass galaxies
• J-PAS: Measuring emission lines with artificial neural networks
• Early results from GLASS-JWST. XXVII. The mass-metallicity relation in lensed field galaxies at cosmic noon with NIRISS
• The miniJPAS survey: Identification and characterization of the emission line galaxies down to $z<0.35$ in the AEGIS field
• A Comparison of Rest-frame Ultraviolet and Optical Emission-Line Diagnostics in the Lensed Galaxy SDSS J1723+3411 at Redshift z=1.3293
• An emission map of the disk-circumgalactic medium transition in starburst IRAS 08339+6517
• Metallicity calibrations based on auroral lines from PHANGS-MUSE data
• High Resolution HST Imaging Survey of Local Star-Forming Galaxies I: Spatially-Resolved Obscured Star Formation with H$\alpha$ and Paschen-$\beta$ Recombination Lines
• Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Emission in the Central Regions of Three Seyferts the Implication for Underlying Feedback Mechanisms
• Classifying the full SDSS-IV MaNGA Survey using optical diagnostic diagrams: presentation of AGN catalogs in flexible apertures
• An H$\alpha$/X-ray orphan cloud as a signpost of the intracluster medium clumping
• Extreme Variation in Star Formation Efficiency Across a Compact, Starbursting Disk Galaxy
• Discovery of a Dusty, Chemically Mature Companion to a z$\sim$4 Starburst Galaxy in JWST ERS Data
• HII regions in CALIFA survey: II. The relation between their physical properties and galaxy evolution
• Spatially resolved BPT mapping of nearby Seyfert 2 galaxies
• Bayesian inference of three-dimensional gas maps: II. Galactic HI
• Measuring chemical abundances in AGN from infrared nebular lines: HII-CHI-Mistry-IR for AGN
• TODDLERS: A new UV-mm emission library for star-forming regions. 1. Integration with SKIRT and public release
• The Role of AGN in Luminous Infrared Galaxies from the Multiwavelength Perspective
• DUVET: Spatially Resolved Observations of Star Formation Regulation via Galactic Outflows in a Starbursting Disk Galaxy
• Galaxy and Mass Assembly (GAMA): A $\text{WISE}$ study of the activity of emission-line systems in G23
• Spatial Variation in Strong Line Ratios and Physical Conditions in Two Strongly-Lensed Galaxies at z~1.4
• Nonparametric galaxy morphology from stellar and nebular emission with the CALIFA sample
• ART${}^2$: A 3D Parallel Multi-wavelength Radiative Transfer Code for Continuum and Atomic and Molecular Lines
• Resolved Molecular Gas Observations of MaNGA Post-starbursts Reveal a Tumultuous Past
• The role of gas kinematics in setting metallicity gradients at high redshift
• Filamentary structures of ionized gas in Cygnus X
• ZFIRE: Measuring Electron Density with [OII] as a function of environment at z = 1.62
• Two interacting galaxies hiding as one, revealed by MaNGA
• Diagnosing the interstellar medium of galaxies with far-infrared emission lines I. The [C II] 158 microns line at z~0
• The PAU Survey: Measurements of the 4000 Å spectral break with narrow-band photometry
• SN 2021adxl: A luminous nearby interacting supernova in an extremely low metallicity environment
• The mass-metallicity and fundamental metallicity relations in non-AGN and AGN-host galaxies
• The origin of double-peak emission-line galaxies: rotating discs, bars or galaxy mergers?
• Merger-induced star formation in low-metallicity dwarf galaxy NGC 4809/4810
• Trading oxygen for iron I: the [O/Fe] -- specific star formation rate relation of galaxies
• Proper Plasma Analysis Practice (PPAP), an Integrated Procedure of the Extinction Correction and Plasma Diagnostics: a Demo with an HST/WFC3 Image Set of NGC6720
• A geostatistical analysis of multiscale metallicity variations in galaxies [II]: Predicting the metallicities of Hii and diffuse ionised gas regions via universal kriging
• A multi-tracer empirically-driven approach to line-intensity mapping lightcones
• The resolved chemical abundance properties within the interstellar medium of star-forming galaxies at $\text{z}\approx 1.5$
• Euclid preparation. XXX. Performance assessment of the NISP Red-Grism through spectroscopic simulations for the Wide and Deep surveys
• Bayesian inference of three-dimensional gas maps: I. Galactic CO
• The VLT-MUSE and ALMA view of the MACS 1931.8-2635 brightest cluster galaxy
• Chemical abundances in Seyfert galaxies X. Sulphur abundance estimates
• Unravelling the enigmatic ISM conditions in Minkowski's Object
• Hardness of ionizing radiation fields in MaNGA star-forming galaxies
• Differential attenuation in star-forming galaxies at 0.3 $\lesssim$ $z$ $\lesssim$ 1.5 in the SHARDS/CANDELS field
• A physically motivated `charge-exchange method' for measuring electron temperatures within HII regions
• Evolution of the UV slope of galaxies at cosmic morning (z > 4): the properties of extremely blue galaxies
• High-Spectral Resolution Observations of the Optical Filamentary Nebula in NGC 1275
• Diagnosing the interstellar medium of galaxies with far-infrared emission lines II. [C II], [O I], [O III], [N II] and [N III] up to z=6
• FIRST J153350.8+272729: the radio afterglow of a decades-old tidal disruption event
• Stellar feedback in a clumpy galaxy at $z\sim$ 3.4
• Unveiling cosmological information on small scales with line intensity mapping
• Chemical abundance of LINER galaxies -- Metallicity calibrations based on SDSS-IV MaNGA
• Optical emission lines in the most massive galaxies: morphology, kinematics and ionisation properties
• Conversions between gas-phase metallicities in MaNGA
• CLEAR: Spatially Resolved Emission Lines and Active Galactic Nuclei at $0.6<z<1.3$
• Chemical Abundance of the LINER galaxy UGC 4805 with SDSS-IV MaNGA
• A Machine Learning Approach to Integral Field Unit Spectroscopy Observations: II. HII Region LineRatios
• JWST/NIRSpec and MIRI observations of an expanding, jet-driven bubble of warm H${}_2$ in the radio galaxy 3C 326 N
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: the chemical co-evolution of gas and stars in spiral galaxies
• Modelling emission lines in star forming galaxies
• SDSS J1058+5443: A blue quasar does not have optical/NUV broad emission lines
• Tracing the Ionization Structure of the Shocked Filaments of NGC 6240
• New calibrations for estimating the N/O ratio in HII regions
• A novel approach to investigate chemical inhomogeneities in GRB host galaxies: The $Z_{\mathrm{abs}}-Z_{\mathrm{emiss}}$ relation
• Self-Consistent Grain Depletions and Abundances II: Effects on strong-line diagnostics of extragalactic H II regions
• How do supernova remnants cool? -- I. Morphology, optical emission lines, and shocks
• Nature of the Galaxies On Top Of Quasars producing MgII absorption
• Detection of the 2175Å UV Bump at z>7: Evidence for Rapid Dust Evolution in a Merging Reionisation-Era Galaxy
• AGN feedback can produce metal enrichment on galaxy scales
• Systematic research of low redshift optically selected SDSS Type-2 AGN but with apparent long-term optical variabilities from Catalina Sky Survey, I: data sample and basic results
• Exploring Spatially-Resolved Metallicities, Dynamics and Outflows in Low-Mass Galaxies at $z\sim 7.6$
• Exploring the Gas-Phase Metallicity Gradients of Star-forming Galaxies at Cosmic Noon
• The ALMaQUEST Survey XV: The Dependence of the Molecular-to-Atomic Gas Ratios on Resolved Optical Diagnostics
• The eROSITA Final Equatorial Depth Survey (eFEDS): SDSS spectroscopic observations of X-ray sources
• Constraining the LyC escape fraction from LEGUS star clusters with SIGNALS HII region observations: A pilot study of NGC 628
• Metallicity Estimation of Core-Collapse Supernova HII Regions in Galaxies within 30 Mpc
• Investigating the Origin of Observed Central Dips in Radial Metallicity Profiles
• Using KCWI to Explore the Chemical Inhomogeneities and Evolution of J1044+0353
• The need for multicomponent dust attenuation in modeling nebular emission: Constraints from SDSS-IV MaNGA
• Direct high-resolution observation of feedback and chemical enrichment in the circumgalactic medium at redshift z ~ 2.8
• NGDEEP: The Star Formation and Ionization Properties of Galaxies at $1.7<z<3.4$
• The First Integral Field Unit Spectroscopic View of Shocked Cluster Galaxies
• Exploring the mysterious high-ionization source powering [Ne V] in high-z analog SBS0335-052 E with JWST/MIRI
• Applications of Stellar Population Synthesis in the Distant Universe
• Resolved galactic superwinds reconstructed around their host galaxies at z>3
• The Sunburst Arc with JWST: II. Observations of an Eta Carinae Analog at $z=2.37$
• Chemical abundances in Seyfert galaxies -- VIII. Argon abundance estimates
• Oxygen Loss from Simulated Galaxies and the Metal Flow Main Sequence: Predicting the Dependence on Mass and Environment
• The PHANGS-MUSE/HST-Halpha Nebulae Catalogue
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons destruction in star-forming regions across 42 nearby galaxies
• The Direct-Method Oxygen Abundance of Typical Dwarf Galaxies at Cosmic High-Noon
• Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the ionized gas
• Inferring redshift and galaxy properties via a multi-task neural net with probabilistic outputs: An application to simulated MOONS spectra
• Clustering of emission line galaxies with IllustrisTNG I.: fundamental properties and halo occupation distribution
• Pre-supernova stellar feedback in nearby starburst dwarf galaxies
• Local starburst conditions and formation of GRB 980425 / SN 1998bw within a collisional ring
• The DIVING${}^{3D}$ Survey - Deep IFS View of Nuclei of Galaxies - III. Analysis of the nuclear region of the early-type galaxies of the sample
• Long-term variability of the composite galaxy SDSS J103911-000057: A candidate of true Type-2 AGN
• The MAGPI survey: The interdependence of the mass, star formation rate, and metallicity in galaxies at z~0.3
• The JWST EXCELS Survey: gas-phase metallicity evolution at 2 < z < 8
• The H$\alpha$ and [O III] $\lambda 5007$ Luminosity Functions of $1.2<z<1.9$ Emission-Line Galaxies from HST Grism Spectroscopy
• The Dwarf Galaxy Population at $z\sim 0.7$: A Catalog of Emission Lines and Redshifts from Deep Keck Observations
• Measuring Dust Attenuation Curves of SINGS/KINGFISH Galaxies Using Swift/UVOT Photometry
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: the physical origin of off-galaxy H$\alpha$ blobs in the local Universe
• Oxygen Abundance Throughout the Dwarf Starburst IC 10
• Evidence for a large off-centered galactic outflow and its connection to the extraplanar diffuse ionized gas in IC 1553
• Metal line emission around z<1 galaxies
• VLT/MUSE and ATCA observations of the host galaxy of the short GRB 080905A at z=0.122
• The ALPINE-ALMA [CII] Survey: Modelling ALMA and JWST lines to constrain the interstellar medium of $z\sim 5$ galaxies
• MARTA: Temperature-temperature relationships and strong-line metallicity calibrations from multiple auroral-line detections at cosmic noon
• Ultra-faint [CII] emission in a redshift = 2 gravitationally-lensed metal-poor dwarf galaxy
• Euclid preparation. Optical emission-line predictions of intermediate-z galaxy populations in GAEA for the Euclid Deep and Wide Surveys
• Spatially resolved direct method metallicity in a high-redshift analogue local galaxy: temperature structure impact on metallicity gradients
• Assessing model-based carbon and oxygen abundance derivation from ultraviolet emission lines in AGNs
• The internal metallicity distributions of simulated galaxies from EAGLE, Illustris, and IllustrisTNG at z=1.8-4 as probed by Gamma Ray Burst hosts
• Discovery of Hydrogen Radio Recombination Lines at z=0.89 towards PKS 1830-211
• SpecPT (Spectroscopy Pre-trained Transformer) Model for Extragalactic Spectroscopy: I. Architecture and Automated Redshift Measurement
• Cloudy-Maraston: Integrating nebular continuum and line emission with the Maraston stellar population synthesis models
• Modeling spatially-resolved galactic H$\alpha$ emission for galaxy clustering
• The ISM scaling relations using inner HI and an application of estimating dust mass
• Rapid, out of equilibrium metal enrichment indicated by a flat mass-metallicity relation at z~6 from NIRCam grism spectroscopy
• Identification of Large Equivalent Width Dusty Galaxies at 4 $<$ z $<$ 6 from Sub-mm Colours
• SDSS-V Local Volume Mapper (LVM): Revealing the Structure of the Rosette Nebula
• TODDLERS: A New UV to Millimeter Emission Library for Star-Forming Regions. II. Star Formation Rate Indicators Using Auriga Zoom Simulations
• Large-scale geometry and topology of gas fields: Effects of AGN and stellar feedback
• The nebular properties of star-forming galaxies at intermediate redshift from the Large Early Galaxy Astrophysics Census
• Active Galactic Nuclei in the Green Valley at z$\sim$0.7
• Sub-galactic scaling relations with T${}_{\mathrm{e}}$-based metallicity of low metallicity regions in galaxies: metal-poor gas inflow may have important effects?
• A Machine Learning Approach to Integral Field Unit Spectroscopy Observations: III. Disentangling Multiple Components in Hii regions
• The Neon Gap: Probing Ionization with Dwarf Galaxies at z~1
• The $z\sim 2$ $[\mathrm{O}\mathrm{III}]$ Luminosity Function of Grism-selected Emission-line Galaxies
• A path towards constraining the evolution of the interstellar medium and outflows in the Milky Way using APOGEE
• Classifying spectra of emission-line regions with neural networks -- An application to integral field spectroscopic data of M33
• Nebular Dust Attenuation with the Balmer and Paschen Lines based on the MaNGA Survey
• SDSS-V LVM: Resolving Physical Conditions in the Trifid Nebula
• A MUSE view of the multiple interacting system HCG 31
• Non-gaussianity of optical emission lines in SDSS star-forming galaxies and its implications on galactic outflows
• MASCOT: Molecular gas depletion times and metallicity gradients -- evidence for feedback in quenching active galaxies
• Beyond diagnostic-diagrams: A critical exploration on the classification of ionization processes
• Quantifying stochasticity-driven uncertainties in H II region metallicities
• The importance of the diffuse ionized gas for interpreting galaxy spectra
• Absorption line abundances in the SMC-like galaxy UGC 5282: evidence for ISM dilution from inflows on kiloparsec scales
• The Impact of Bars, Spirals and Bulge-Size on Gas-Phase Metallicity Gradients in MaNGA Galaxies
• Principal component analysis tomography in near-infrared integral field spectroscopy of young stellar objects. I. Revisiting the high-mass protostar W33A
• A Dual Active Black Hole Candidate with Mass Ratio ~7:1 in a Disk Galaxy
• The significant contribution of supersoft X-ray Sources to the nebular HeII line emission
• Temperature based radial metallicity gradients in nearby galaxies
• On the Origin of the Strong Optical Variability of Emission-line Galaxies
• CECILIA: Ultra-Deep Rest-Optical Spectra of Faint Galaxies at Cosmic Noon
• Insights on Galaxy Evolution from Interpretable Sparse Feature Networks
• Testing the role of AGN on the star formation and metal enrichment of "twin galaxies"
• The PAU Survey: Classifying low-z SEDs using Machine Learning clustering
• The metallicity dependence of long-duration gamma-ray bursts
• Tracing nitrogen enrichment across cosmic time with JWST
• Compact [OIII] emission-line regions ("Green Seeds") in $\mathrm{H}\alpha$ emitters at Cosmic Noon from JWST Observations
• Electron density distribution in HII regions in IC10
• SIGNALS of Giant HII Regions: A Spatially Resolved Analysis of NGC 604
• Recovering the properties of the interstellar medium through integrated spectroscopy: application to the z~0 ECO volume-limited star-forming galaxy sample
• The origin of double-peaked narrow emission-line galaxies in MaNGA Survey
• SDSS-V LVM: A spatially resolved study of the physical conditions and the chemical abundance discrepancy in the Lagoon Nebula (M 8)
• Interactions among intermediate redshift galaxies. The case of SDSSJ134420.86+663717.8
• The ALPINE-CRISTAL-JWST Survey: Gas-phase abundance gradients of main sequence star-forming galaxies and their kinematics at $4<z<6$
• The Physical Properties of Star-Forming Galaxies with Strong [O III] Lines at z=3.25
• Spatially-resolved Galactic HII regions observed by LAMOST medium-Resolution Spectroscopic Survey of Nebulae (LAMOST MRS-N)
• Evaluating quenching in cosmological simulations of galaxy formation with spectral covariance in the optical window
• KURVS: chemical properties from multiple strong line calibrations for star-forming galaxies at $z\sim 1.5$
• Physical Drivers of Emission Line Diversity of SDSS Seyfert 2s and LINERs After Removal of Contributions by Star Formation
• The impact of bars on the properties of HII regions in the TIMER survey
• SDSS-V LVM: Verifying what, and where, the 'Galactic Center' Lobe is
• Topological models to infer multiphase interstellar medium properties
• Common Excitation Patterns of Star Formation, Active Galactic Nuclei, and Shocks in Seyfert Galaxies
• Nearest Neighbour-Based Statistics for 21cm-Galaxy Cross-Correlations in the Epoch of Reionization
• Quokka-based understanding of outflows (QED) -- IV. Limitations of H$\alpha$ as an outflow diagnostic
• Andromeda's tenuous veil: A likely Milky Way nebula projected toward M31
• Kinematics and Feedback in H II regions in the Dwarf Starburst Galaxy IC 10
• Observed cosmic evolution of galaxy dust properties with metallicity and tensions with models
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: Data-Model Discrepancy in Temperature-sensitive Line Ratios for Star-forming Galaxies
• Euclid preparation. Predicting star-forming galaxy scaling relations with the spectral stacking code SpectraPyle
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: Exploring the local scaling relations for N/O
• Nebular abundance gradient in the Cartwheel galaxy using MUSE data
• M^3D: Mosaicking M33 with MUSE datacubes I. Unveiling the diversity of HII regions in M33 with MUSE
• Chemical abundances in Seyfert galaxies -- VII. Direct abundance determination of neon based on optical and infrared emission lines
• A model for the emission line galaxy luminosity function and flux ratios at high-redshifts
• The AGEL Survey: Spectroscopic Confirmation of Strong Gravitational Lenses in the DES and DECaLS Fields Selected Using Convolutional Neural Networks
• Spectroscopic Observations and Emission-Line Diagnoses for H ii Regions in the Late-Type Spiral Galaxy NGC 2403
• Optimal strategies for measuring gas-phase metallicities in intermediate-redshift non-AGN and AGN-host galaxies using future instrumentation