The newborn planet population emerging from ring-like structures in discs

Abstract

ALMA has observed a plethora of ring-like structures in planet forming discs at distances of 10-100 au from their host star. Although several mechanisms have been invoked to explain the origin of such rings, a common explanation is that they trace new-born planets. Under the planetary hypothesis, a natural question is how to reconcile the apparently high frequency of gap-carving planets at 10-100 au with the paucity of Jupiter mass planets observed around main sequence stars at those separations. Here, we provide an analysis of the new-born planet population emerging from observations of gaps in discs, under the assumption that the observed gaps are due to planets. We use a simple estimate of the planet mass based on the gap morphology, and apply it to a sample of gaps recently obtained by us in a survey of Taurus with ALMA. We also include additional data from recent published surveys, thus analysing the largest gap sample to date, for a total of 48 gaps. The properties of the purported planets occupy a distinctively different region of parameter space with respect to the known exo-planet population, currently not accessible through planet finding methods. Thus, no discrepancy in the mass and radius distribution of the two populations can be claimed at this stage. We show that the mass of the inferred planets conforms to the theoretically expected trend for the minimum planet mass needed to carve a dust gap. Finally, we estimate the separation and mass of the putative planets after accounting for migration and accretion, for a range of evolutionary times, finding a good match with the distribution of cold Jupiters.

arXiv comment9 pages, 5 figures, re-submitted to MNRAS after referee's comments

References in corpus (69)

• Spectral Energy Distributions of T Tauri Stars With Passive Circumstellar Disks
• New evolutionary models for pre-main sequence and main sequence low-mass stars down to the hydrogen-burning limit
• First Results from High Angular Resolution ALMA Observations Toward the HL Tau Region
• The Keck Planet Search: Detectability and the Minimum Mass and Orbital Period Distribution of Extrasolar Planets
• On the width and shape of gaps in protoplanetary disks
• Ringed Substructure and a Gap at 1 AU in the Nearest Protoplanetary Disk
• Gaps and Rings in an ALMA Survey of Disks in the Taurus Star-forming Region
• The Disk Substructures at High Angular Resolution Project (DSHARP): II. Characteristics of Annular Substructures
• A Steeper than Linear Disk Mass-Stellar Mass Scaling Relation
• Separating gas-giant and ice-giant planets by halting pebble accretion
• Dynamical Masses of T Tauri Stars and Calibration of PMS Evolution
• Ring shaped dust accumulation in transition disks
• The Disk Population of the Taurus Star-Forming Region
• The Disk Substructures at High Angular Resolution Project (DSHARP): VII. The Planet-Disk Interactions Interpretation
• Evidence of fast pebble growth near condensation fronts in the HL Tau protoplanetary disk
• Probing the structure of protoplanetary disks: a comparative study of DM Tau, LkCa 15 and MWC 480
• Magnetic Inhibition of Convection and the Fundamental Properties of Low-Mass Stars. III. A Consistent 10 Myr Age for the Upper Scorpius OB Association
• The structure of protoplanetary discs around evolving young stars
• A Three-Dimensional View of Turbulence: Constraints on Turbulent Motions in the HD 163296 Protoplanetary Disk using DCO${}^{+}$
• Transitional and Pre-Transitional disks: Gap Opening by Multiple Planets?
• On planet formation in HL Tau
• The evolution of a supermassive binary caused by an accretion disc
• Hints for a Turnover at the Snow Line in the Giant Planet Occurrence Rate
• ALMA unveils rings and gaps in the protoplanetary system HD 169142: signatures of two giant protoplanets
• How Empty are Disk Gaps Opened by Giant Planets?
• Why do protoplanetary disks appear not massive enough to form the known exoplanet population?
• Planet formation and migration
• An Increase in the Mass of Planetary Systems around Lower-Mass Stars
• Transitional Disks as Signposts of Young, Multiplanet Systems
• The minimum mass of detectable planets in protoplanetary discs and the derivation of planetary masses from high resolution observations
• Migration of massive planets in accreting disks
• ALMA continuum observations of the protoplanetary disk AS 209. Evidence of multiple gaps opened by a single planet
• Vertical structure models of T Tauri and Herbig Ae/Be disks
• Reduced gas accretion on super-Earths and ice giants
• Physical properties of dusty protoplanetary disks in Lupus: evidence for viscous evolution?
• Circumplanetary disk or circumplanetary envelope?
• The formation of rings and gaps in magnetically coupled disk-wind systems: ambipolar diffusion and reconnection
• Gas accretion onto planetary cores: three-dimensional self-gravitating radiation hydrodynamical calculations
• The VLT/NaCo large program to probe the occurrence of exoplanets and brown dwarfs at wide orbits. IV. Gravitational instability rarely forms wide, giant planets
• How planetary growth outperforms migration
• Multiple Disk Gaps and Rings Generated by a Single Super-Earth: II. Spacings, Depths, and Number of Gaps, with Application to Real Systems
• The Mass Budget of Planet Forming Discs: Isolating the Epoch of Planetesimal Formation
• Gap Opening in 3D: Single Planet Gaps
• Homogeneous Analysis of the Dust Morphology of Transition Disks Observed with ALMA: Investigating dust trapping and the origin of the cavities
• On the Commonality of 10-30AU Sized Axisymmetric Dust Structures in Protoplanetary Disks
• Rings and gaps in the disc around Elias 24 revealed by ALMA
• High resolution millimetre imaging of the CI Tau protoplanetary disc - a massive ensemble of protoplanets from 0.1 - 100 au
• Planet population synthesis driven by pebble accretion in cluster environments
• An opening criterion for dust gaps in protoplanetary discs
• Deserts and pile-ups in the distribution of exoplanets due to photoevaporative disc clearing
• Gaps, rings, and non-axisymmetric structures in protoplanetary disks - Emission from large grains
• The masses of young stars: CN as a probe of dynamical masses
• ALMA images of discs: are all gaps carved by planets?
• Inferring giant planets from ALMA millimeter continuum and line observations in (transition) disks
• A Direct Imaging Survey of Spitzer detected debris disks: Occurrence of giant planets in dusty systems
• The LEECH Exoplanet Imaging Survey: Limits on Planet Occurrence Rates Under Conservative Assumptions
• The Ring Structure in the MWC 480 Disk Revealed by ALMA
• Component Masses of the Young Spectroscopic Binary UZ Tau E
• Dynamical Masses of Low Mass Stars in the Taurus and Ophiuchus Star Forming Regions
• Diverse protoplanetary disk morphology produced by a Jupiter-mass planet
• V1094 Sco: a rare giant multi-ringed disk around a T Tauri star
• MASSIVE: A Bayesian analysis of giant planet populations around low-mass stars
• Halting planet migration by photoevaporation from the central source
• Runaway gas accretion and gap opening versus type~I migration
• Inner Super-Earths, Outer Gas Giants: How Pebble Isolation and Migration Feedback Keep Jupiters Cold
• The Maximum Mass Solar Nebula and the early formation of planets
• Gap and rings carved by vortices in protoplanetary dust
• Trapping planets in an evolving protoplanetary disk: preferred time, locations and planet mass
• Planetary Migration to Large Radii

Cited by in corpus (117)

• Observations of Protoplanetary Disk Structures
• Compact Disks in a High Resolution ALMA Survey of Dust Structures in the Taurus Molecular Cloud
• A Circumplanetary Disk Around PDS70c
• Nine localised deviations from Keplerian rotation in the DSHARP circumstellar disks: Kinematic evidence for protoplanets carving the gaps
• The Ophiuchus DIsc Survey Employing ALMA (ODISEA)-III: the evolution of substructures in massive discs at 3-5 au resolution
• Observational constraints on dust disk sizes in tidally truncated protoplanetary disks in multiple systems in the Taurus region
• A stellar mass dependence of structured disks: a possible link with exoplanet demographics
• Hints for icy pebble migration feeding an oxygen-rich chemistry in the inner planet-forming region of disks
• ALMA reveals a large structured disk and nested rotating outflows in DG Tau B
• The efficiency of dust trapping in ringed proto-planetary discs
• High gas/dust size ratio indicating efficient radial drift in the mm-faint CX Tau disk
• Perturbers: SPHERE detection limits to planetary-mass companions in protoplanetary disks
• Confirmation and Keplerian motion of the gap-carving protoplanet HD 169142 b
• The GRAVITY Young Stellar Object survey -- I. Probing the disks of Herbig Ae/Be stars in terrestrial orbits
• Planet populations inferred from debris discs: insights from 178 debris systems in the ISPY, LEECH and LIStEN planet-hunting surveys
• Directly tracing the vertical stratification of molecules in protoplanetary disks
• On the secular evolution of the ratio between gas and dust radii in protoplanetary discs
• Limits on Millimeter Continuum Emission from Circumplanetary Material in the DSHARP Disks
• Demographics of disks around young very low-mass stars and brown dwarfs in Lupus
• A highly non-Keplerian protoplanetary disc: Spiral structure in the gas disc of CQ Tau
• The theory of kinks -- I. A semi-analytic model of velocity perturbations due to planet-disc interaction
• ALMA Detection of Dust Trapping around Lagrangian Points in the LkCa 15 Disk
• Interpreting high spatial resolution line observations of planet-forming disks with gaps and rings -- The case of HD 163296
• Puffed up Edges of Planet-opened Gaps in Protoplanetary Disks. I. hydrodynamic simulations
• Dual-Wavelength ALMA Observations of Dust Rings in Protoplanetary Disks
• From Pebbles and Planetesimals to Planets and Dust: the Protoplanetary Disk--Debris Disk Connection
• Setting the Stage: Planet formation and Volatile Delivery
• exoALMA IV: Substructures, Asymmetries, and the Faint Outer Disk in Continuum Emission
• Long lived dust rings around HD169142
• A bright inner disk and structures in the transition disk around the very low-mass star CIDA 1
• Planet migration, resonant locking and accretion streams in PDS70: Comparing models and data
• ALMA 870 $\mu$m continuum observations of HD 100546. Evidence of a giant planet on a wide orbit
• Accretion of Gas Giants Constrained by the Tidal Barrier
• N-body simulations of planet formation via pebble accretion II. How various giant planets form
• Flyby-induced misalignments in planet-hosting discs
• The ALMA view of MP Mus (PDS 66): a protoplanetary disk with no visible gaps down to 4 au scales
• ALMA observations require slower Core Accretion runaway growth
• No significant correlation between radial velocity planet presence and debris disc properties
• Substructures in Compact Disks of the Taurus Star-forming Region
• A high-resolution survey of protoplanetary disks in Lupus and the nature of compact disks
• Which planets trigger longer-lived vortices: low-mass or high-mass?
• CO2-rich protoplanetary discs as a probe of dust radial drift & trapping
• Direct Formation of Planetary Embryos in Self-Gravitating Disks
• The role of the drag force in the gravitational stability of dusty planet forming disc -- I. Analytical theory
• Planet Migration in Self-Gravitating Discs: Survival of Planets
• The role of the drag force in the gravitational stability of dusty planet-forming disc -- II. Numerical simulations
• ALMA Super-resolution Imaging of T Tau: r = 12 au Gap in the Compact Dust Disk around T Tau N
• Gap carving by a migrating planet embedded in a massive debris disc
• Is the gap in the DS Tau disc hiding a planet?
• A search for companions via direct imaging in the DSHARP planet-forming disks
• Stirred but not shaken: a multi-wavelength view of HD 16743's debris disc
• TW Hya: an old protoplanetary disc revived by its planet
• Molecules with ALMA at Planet-forming Scales (MAPS). Complex Kinematics in the AS 209 Disk Induced by a Forming Planet and Disk Winds
• Promoted Mass Growth of Multiple, Distant Giant Planets through Pebble Accretion and Planet-Planet Collision
• A recipe for orbital eccentricity damping in the type-I regime for low viscosity 2D-discs
• Systematic Multi-Epoch Monitoring of LkCa 15: Dynamic Dust Structures on Solar-System Scales
• Revisiting collisional dust growth in Class 0/I protostellar disks: Sweep-up can convert a few $10M_{\oplus }$ of dust into kg pebbles in 0.1 Myr
• A kinematic excess in the annular gap and gas depleted cavity in the disc around HD 169142
• Gap opening by planets in discs with magnetised winds
• Wide Dust Gaps in Protoplanetary Disks Induced by Eccentric Planets: A Mass-Eccentricity Degeneracy
• Formation of wide-orbit giant planets in protoplanetary disks with a decreasing pebble flux
• Planetary core formation via multi-species pebble accretion
• PGNets: Planet mass prediction using convolutional neural networks for radio continuum observations of protoplanetary disks
• DBNets: A publicly available deep learning tool to measure the masses of young planets in dusty protoplanetary discs
• High-resolution ALMA observations of compact discs in the wide-binary system Sz 65 and Sz 66
• First Images of the Protoplanetary Disk Around PDS 201
• A giant planet shaping the disk around the very low-mass star CIDA 1
• Growth after the streaming instability: The radial distance dependence of the planetary growth
• A Machine Learning model to infer planet masses from gaps observed in protoplanetary disks
• DPNNet-2.0 Part I: Finding hidden planets from simulated images of protoplanetary disk gaps
• ALMA constraints on assembly of Core Accretion planets
• Filling in the Gaps: Can Gravitationally Unstable Discs Form the Seeds of Gas Giant Planets?
• Distinguishing Magnetized Disc Winds from Turbulent Viscosity through Substructure Morphology in Planet-forming Discs
• Disk Evolution Study Through Imaging of Nearby Young Stars (DESTINYS): Diverse outcomes of binary-disk interactions
• Improving Planet Detection with Disk Modeling: Keck/NIRC2 Imaging of the HD 34282 Single-armed Protoplanetary Disk
• Architecture of planetary systems predicted from protoplanetary disks observed with ALMA I: mass of the possible planets embedded in the dust gap
• The GRAVITY Young Stellar Object survey VIII. Gas and dust faint inner rings in the hybrid disk of HD141569
• On the origin of wide-orbit ALMA planets: giant protoplanets disrupted by their cores
• Using Bayesian Deep Learning to infer Planet Mass from Gaps in Protoplanetary Disks
• Testing velocity kinks as a planet-detection method: Do velocity kinks in surface gas emission trace planetary spiral wakes in the midplane continuum?
• Vertical CO surfaces as a probe for protoplanetary disk mass and carbon depletion
• Do all gaps in protoplanetary discs host planets?
• ALMA chemical survey of disk-outflow sources in Taurus (ALMA-DOT) VII: the layered molecular outflow from HL Tau and its relationship with the ringed disk
• The role of density perturbation on planet formation by pebble accretion
• Imaging the Dusty Substructures due to Terrestrial Planets in Planet-forming Disks with ALMA and the Next Generation Very Large Array
• Constraining giant planet formation with synthetic ALMA images of the Solar System's natal protoplanetary disk
• Multi-frequency analysis of the ALMA and VLA high resolution continuum observations of the substructured disc around CI Tau. Preference for sub-mm-sized low-porosity amorphous carbon grains
• DBNets2.0: simulation-based inference for planet-induced dust substructures in protoplanetary discs
• Dust ring and gap formation by gas flow induced by low-mass planets embedded in protoplanetary disks $\mathrm{I}$. Steady-state model
• Substructures in protoplanetary disks imprinted by compact planetary systems
• Emerging population of gap-opening planets around type-A stars -- Long-term evolution of the forming planets around HD 163296
• Searching for wide-orbit gravitational instability protoplanets with ALMA in the dust continuum
• A Large Double-ring Disk around the Taurus M Dwarf J04124068+2438157
• Hidden under a warm blanket: If planets existed in protostellar disks, they would hardly produce observable substructures
• Testing planet formation from the ultraviolet to the millimeter
• Estimating the depth of gaps opened by planets in eccentric orbit
• The paradox of youth for ALMA planet candidates
• Modeling the arc and ring structures in the HD 143006 disk
• Searching for Planets Orbiting Vega with the James Webb Space Telescope
• Dust ring and gap formation by gas flow induced by low-mass planets embedded in protoplanetary disks $\mathrm{II}$. Time-dependent model
• Multiple Rings and Asymmetric Structures in the Disk of SR 21
• Investigating the Future Potential of an Upgraded ALMA to Image Planet Forming Disks at Sub-au Scales
• Planet-driven spirals in protoplanetary discs: limitations of the semi-analytical theory for observations
• Monte Carlo post-processing for radiation hydro simulations of accreting planets in protoplanetary disks
• Resurgence of CO in a warm bubble around accreting protoplanets and its observability
• Angular momentum transport via gravitational instability in the Elias 2-27 disc
• The Radial Profile of Dust Grain Size in the Protoplanetary Disk of DS Tau
• Architecture of planetary systems predicted from protoplanetary disks observed with ALMA II: evolution outcomes and dynamical stability
• New migration patterns in high planet-star mass ratio systems in disks with low viscosity
• Timescales diagnostics for saving viscous and MHD-driven dusty discs from external photoevaporation
• Formation of ring-like structures in flared α-discs with X-ray/FUV photoevaporation
• exoALMA XXIII. Estimating Disk and Planet Properties from Dust Morphologies with DBNets2.0
• Searching for planet-driven dust spirals in ALMA visibilities
• The effect of late giant collisions on the atmospheres of protoplanets and the formation of cold sub-Saturns
• Gravitational instability in planet-forming discs
• Reading between the rings: observed dust ring properties as probes of planet masses
• Constraining the properties of the potential embedded planets in the disk around HD 100546