The Proper Motion of Sgr A*: II. The Mass of Sgr A*

Abstract

We report measurements with the VLBA of the position of Sgr A* with respect to two extragalactic radio sources over a period of eight years. The apparent proper motion of \sgrab relative to J1745-283 is 6.379 +/- 0.024 mas/y along a position angle of 209.60 +/- 0.18 degrees, almost entirely in the plane of the Galaxy. The effects of the orbit of the Sun around the Galactic center can account for this motion, and the residual proper motion of Sgr A* perpendicular to the plane of the Galaxy is -0.4 +/- 0.9 km/s. A maximum-likelihood analysis of the motion expected for a massive object within the observed Galactic center stellar cluster indicates that Sgr A* contains more than about 10% of the approximately 4 x 10^6 Msun deduced from stellar orbits. The intrinsic size of Sgr A*, as measured by several investigators, is less than 1 AU, and the implied mass density of ~10^22 Msun/pc^3 is within about three orders of magnitude of a comparable super-massive black hole within its Schwarzschild radius. Our observations provide the first direct evidence that a compact radiative source at the center of a galaxy contains of order 10^6 Msun and provides overwhelming evidence that it is in the form of a super-massive black hole. Finally, the existence of "intermediate mass" black holes more massive than ~10^4 Msun between roughly 10^3 and 10^5 AU from Sgr A* are excluded.

arXiv comment37 pages, 8 figures, 4 tables

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• Measurement of the solar system acceleration using the Earth scale factor
• Modelling resonances and orbital chaos in disk galaxies. Application to a Milky Way spiral model
• High-Precision Radio and Infrared Astrometry of LSPM J1314+1320AB - I: Parallax, Proper Motions, and Limits on Planets
• Star Formation and Dynamics in the Galactic Centre
• Limits on the Position Wander of Sgr A*
• Gravitational-wave captures by intermediate-mass black holes in galactic nuclei
• Probing the Galactic halo with RR Lyrae stars $-$ III. The chemical and kinematic properties of the stellar halo
• The oblateness of the Milky Way dark matter halo from the stellar streams of NGC 3201, M68, and Palomar 5
• Hypervelocity Planets and Transits Around Hypervelocity Stars
• Models of Distorted and Evolving Dark Matter Halos
• Imaging the Expanding Shell of SN 2011dh
• VLBA determination of the distance to nearby star-forming regions VII. Monoceros R2
• Cresting the wave: Proper motions of the Eastern Banded Structure
• The chemistry of stars in the bar of the Milky Way
• Colliding Winds in and around the Stellar Group IRS 13E at the Galactic Center
• High Resolution Radio Astronomy Using Very Long Baseline Interferometry
• The influence of the secular perturbation of an intermediate-mass companion: I. Eccentricity excitation of disk stars at the Galactic center
• Near-infrared polarimetry as a tool for testing properties of accreting super-massive black holes
• Galactic googly: the rotation-metallicity bias in the inner stellar halo of the Milky Way
• Constraining a black hole companion for M87* through imaging by the Event Horizon Telescope
• Impact of galactic distributions in celestial capture of dark matter
• Simultaneous Monitoring of X-ray and Radio Variability in Sagittarius A*
• The course of the Orphan Stream in the Northern Galactic Hemisphere traced with Gaia DR2
• Multi-colour photometry and Gaia EDR3 astrometry of two couples of binary clusters (NGC 5617 and Trumpler 22) and (NGC 3293 and NGC 3324)
• Measuring Fundamental Galactic Parameters with Stellar Tidal Streams and SIM PlanetQuest
• The imprints of the Galactic bar on the thick disk with RAVE
• The GALAH Survey: Accreted stars also inhabit the Spite Plateau
• Halo uncertainties in electron recoil events at direct detection experiments
• The Magnetic Field in the central parsec of the Galaxy
• The Distant Outer Gas Arm Between l=35d and l=45d
• Kinematics and Multi Band Period-Luminosity-Metallicity Relation of RR Lyrae Stars via Statistical Parallax
• Galactic Spiral Structure
• The observer-dependent shadow of the Kerr black hole
• Ks- and Lp-band polarimetry on stellar and bow-shock sources in the Galactic center
• Multi-Epoch VERA Observations of Sagittarius A*: I. Images and Structural Variability
• The GALAH survey: Tracing the Milky Way's formation and evolution through RR Lyrae stars
• On the origins of extreme velocity stars as revealed by large-scale Galactic surveys
• A Galactic Ring of Minimum Stellar Density Near the Solar Orbit Radius
• The Proper Motion of Pyxis: the first use of Adaptive Optics in tandem with HST on a faint halo object
• New type II Cepheids from VVV data towards the Galactic center
• Milky Way Gas Dynamics
• The local standard of rest and the well in the velocity distribution
• A VLBA Survey of radio stars in the Orion Nebula Cluster: I. The nonthermal radio population
• No sign of G2's encounter affecting Sgr A*'s X-ray flaring rate from $Chandra$ observations
• Rotating Ionized Gas Ring around the Galactic Center IRS13E3
• Imaging black holes: past, present and future
• Asymmetric streaming motion in the Galactic bulge X-shaped structure revealed by the OGLE-III proper motions
• ALMA and VLA observations of emission from the environment of Sgr A*
• Calibration of RAVE distances to a large sample of Hipparcos stars
• Reconsidering the galactic coordinate system
• Stellar proper motions in the outskirts of classical dwarf spheroidal galaxies with Gaia EDR3
• GD-1 Stellar Stream and Cocoon in the DESI Early Data Release
• Constraints on the Galactic Centre environment from \textit{Gaia} hypervelocity stars III: Insights on a possible companion to Sgr A*
• Determination of Galactic Rotation Parameters and the Solar Galactocentric Distance Ro from 73 Masers
• Sgr A* and its Environment: Low Mass Star Formation, the Origin of X-ray Gas and Collimated Outflow
• The Orbit and Origin of the Ultra-faint Dwarf Galaxy Segue 1
• Multi-epoch searches for relativistic binary pulsars and fast transients in the Galactic Centre
• A slightly oblate dark matter halo revealed by a retrograde precessing Galactic disk warp
• The tangled warp of the Milky Way
• Probability of forming gaps in the GD-1 stream by close encounters of globular clusters
• Median Statistics Estimate of the Galactic Rotational Velocity
• The influences of the Magellanic Clouds on the Galaxy: Pole shift, warp, and star formation history
• Constraints on Alternatives to Supermassive Black Holes
• Estimation of the SolarGalactocentric Distance and Rotation Velocity from Near-Solar-Circle Objects
• Signatures of tidal disruption in the Milky Way globular cluster NGC 6981 (M72)
• ALMA Detection of Extreme Blue-Shifted Ionized Gas Within 0.2 pc of Sgr A* from -480 to -300 km/s
• The Implications of Local Fluctuations in the Galactic Midplane for Dynamical Analysis in the Gaia Era
• All-Sky Kinematics of the Distant Halo: The Reflex Response to the LMC
• Measuring the Orbits of the Arches and Quintuplet Clusters using HST and Gaia: Exploring Scenarios for Star Formation Near the Galactic Center
• Remarkable migration of the solar system from the innermost Galactic disk; a wander, a wobble, and a climate catastrophe on the Earth
• Detection of a dearth of stars with zero angular momentum in the solar neighbourhood
• Properties of Galactic Dark Matter: Constraints from Astronomical Observations
• Tidally induced velocity gradients in the Milky Way dwarf spheroidal satellites
• Investigating the amplitude and rotation of the phase spiral in the Milky Way outer disc
• Fuelling the search for light dark matter-electron scattering with spherical proportional counters
• Near-Solar-Circle Method for Determination of the Galactic Constants
• On the Galactic rotation curve inferred from the Jeans equations Assessing its robustness using Gaia DR3 and cosmological simulations
• Position and Proper Motion of Sagittarius A* in the ICRF3 Frame from VLBI Absolute Astrometry
• A comparative study of amplitude calibrations for East-Asia VLBI Network: a-priori and template spectrum methods
• Constrained cosmological simulations of the Local Group using Bayesian hierarchical field-level inference
• Astrometric Detection of Intermediate-Mass Black Holes At the Galactic Centre
• The LMC impact on the kinematics of the Milky Way satellites: clues from the running solar apex
• Detection of a dense group of hyper-compact radio sources in the central parsec of the Galaxy
• Member stars of the GD1 tidal stream from the SDSS, LAMOST and Gaia surveys
• A deep investigation of two poorly studied open clusters Haffner 22 and Melotte 71 in Gaia era
• Deceleration of kicked objects due to the Galactic potential
• Evidence that Mass Loss on the Red Giant Branch Decreases with Metallicity
• Robust Clustering of the Local Milky Way Stellar Kinematic Substructures with Gaia eDR3
• Asymmetric metallicity patterns in the stellar velocity space with RAVE
• Aberration in proper motions for stars in our Galaxy
• Absolute Proper Motion of IRAS 00259+5625 with VERA : Indication of Superbubble Expansion Motion
• Constraining Solar position and velocity with a Nearby Hypervelocity Star
• Investigation of the Galactic Bar based on Photometry and Stellar Proper Motions
• A Measurement of Proper Motions of SiO Maser Sources in the Galactic Center with the VLBA
• No Microwave Flare of Sagittarius A* around the G2 Periastron Passing
• The diffuse interstellar band around 8620 Å II. Kinematics and distance of the DIB carrier
• Millimeter-wave Spectral Line Surveys toward the Galactic Circumnuclear Disk and Sgr A*
• VLBI Observations of H2O Maser Annual Parallax and Proper Motion in IRAS 20143+3634: Reflection on the Galactic Constants
• Adaptive optics assisted near-infrared polarization measurements of sources in the Galactic Center
• $\text{Siriusly}$, a newly identified intermediate-age Milky Way stellar cluster: A spectroscopic study of $\text{Gaia}$ 1
• LISA Constraints on an Intermediate-Mass Black Hole in the Galactic Centre
• The earliest phases of CNO enrichment in galaxies
• The GALAH Survey: No chemical evidence of an extragalactic origin for the Nyx stream
• Impact of bar resonances in the velocity-space distribution of the solar neighbourhood stars in a self-consistent $N$-body Galactic disc simulation
• Influence of the Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus on the density shape of the Galactic stellar halo revealed by halo K giants from the LAMOST survey
• Searching for correlations in GAIA DR2 unbound star trajectories
• A deep study of an intermediate age open cluster SAI 35 (Juchert 20) using ground based imaging and Gaia EDR3 astrometry
• Signatures of the Galactic bar on stellar kinematics unveiled by APOGEE
• Characterization and dynamics of the peculiar stream Jhelum, A tentative role for the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy
• How to calculate dark matter direct detection exclusion limits that are consistent with gamma rays from annihilation in the Milky Way halo
• A Swift study of long-term changes in the X-ray flaring properties of Sagittarius A*
• Apocalypse When? No Certainty of a Milky Way -- Andromeda Collision
• Occultation of the Quiescent Emission from Sgr A* by IR Flares
• Probing the vector charge of Sagittarius A* with pulsar timing
• Blanco DECam Bulge Survey (BDBS) V. Cleaning the foreground populations from Galactic bulge colour-magnitude diagrams using Gaia EDR3
• Detailed analysis of the poorly studied northern open cluster NGC 1348 using multi-color photometry and GAIA EDR3 astrometry
• Milky Way globular clusters on cosmological timescales. III. Interaction rates
• Gaia DR 2 data and the evolutionary status of eight high velocity hot post-AGB candidates
• VLBA Determination of the Distance to Nearby Star-forming Regions. VIII. The LkH$\alpha$ 101 cluster
• How far actually is the Galactic Center IRS 13E3 from Sagittarius A${}^{\ast }$?
• Observational constraints on spatial anisotropy of G from orbital motions
• Can a Satellite Galaxy Merger Explain the Active Past of the Galactic Center?
• On aberration in gravitational lensing
• An application of Galactic parallax: the distance to the tidal stream GD-1
• The Influence of the Galactic Bar on the Dynamics of Globular Clusters
• Modeling the Images of Relativistic Jets Lensed by Galaxies with Different Mass Surface Density Distributions
• A Milliarcsecond-accurate Position for Sagittarius A*
• Limitations and rotation of the two-armed phase spiral in the Milky Way stellar disc
• Analysis of Galactic Rotation from Masers based on a Nonlinear Oort Model
• Recommended conventions for reporting results from direct dark matter searches
• The missing radial velocities of Gaia: blind predictions for DR3
• The GALAH Survey: Velocity fluctuations in the Milky Way using red clump giants
• Approaching the event horizon: 1.3mm VLBI of SgrA*
• The tilt of the velocity ellipsoid of different Galactic disk populations
• The connecting molecular ridge in the Galactic center
• Intrinsically Polarized Stars and Implication for Star Formation in the Central Parsec of Our Galaxy
• A catalogue of asteroseismically calibrated ages for APOGEE DR17. The predictions of a CatBoost machine learning model based on the [Mg/Ce] chemical clock and other stellar parameters
• A Pristine-UNIONS view on the Galaxy: Kinematics of the distant spur feature of the Sagittarius stream traced by Blue Horizontal Branch stars
• High-resolution Millimeter-VLBI Imaging of Sgr A*
• Measuring the Streaming motion in the Milky Way disc with Gaia EDR3 +
• A kinematically constrained kick distribution for isolated neutron stars
• Measuring the Sun's Motion with Stellar Streams
• First measurement of the triaxiality of the inner dark matter halo of the Milky Way
• Astrophysics with the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna
• Toward Astrometric Constraints on a Supermassive Black Hole Binary in the Early-Type Galaxy NGC\,4472
• Dynamical streams in the local stellar halo
• Astrometric test of the weak equivalence principle
• Mapping the Distant and Metal-Poor Milky Way with SDSS-V
• Trigonometric parallax and proper motion of Sagittarius A* measured by VERA using the new broad-band back-end system OCTAVE-DAS
• Alignment and Rotational Disruption of Dust Grains in the Galactic Centre Revealed by Polarized Dust Emission
• Constraining the Planet Occurrence Rate around Halo Stars of Potentially Extragalactic Origin
• Investigating kinematics and dynamics of three open clusters towards Galactic anti-center
• Dynamics around supermassive black holes
• Models of Bars with Exponential Density Profiles
• Microlens Surveys are a Powerful Probe of Asteroids
• Masers in AGN environments
• Dark Matter Velocity Distributions for Direct Detection: Astrophysical Uncertainties are Smaller Than They Appear
• A Gaia based analysis of open cluster Berkeley 27
• A uniform treatment of the orbital effects due to a violation of the Strong Equivalence Principle in the gravitational Stark-like limit
• A Case Study of Interstellar Material Delivery: α Centauri
• Solar system constraints on planetary Coriolis-type effects induced by rotation of distant masses
• Destruction of the central black hole gas reservoir through head-on galaxy collisions
• Rotation Measure synthesis study and polarized properties of PSR J1745-2900 at 7 mm
• Milky Way globular clusters on cosmological timescales. IV. Guests in the outer Solar System
• An Eclectic View of our Milky Way Galaxy
• Deciphering the Kinematic Substructure of Local Dark Matter with LAMOST K Giants
• Cosmological insights into the early accretion of r-process-enhanced stars II. Dynamical identification of lost members of Reticulum II
• Testing black hole space-times with the S2 star orbit: a Bayesian comparison
• J01020100-7122208: an accreted evolved blue straggler that wasn't ejected from a supermassive black hole
• On the Fast Track: Rapid construction of stellar stream paths
• Spatial orientation and shape of the velocity ellipsoids of the Gaia DR3 giants and subgiants in the Galactic plane
• The BHB stars in the Survey Fields of Rodgers et al. (1993): New Observations and Comparisons with other Recent Surveys
• On the origin of the Hercules group: I. chemical signatures indicating the outer bar origin
• Dynamics of star associations in an SMBH-IMBH system: The case of IRS13 in the Galactic centre
• Very metal-poor stars in the solar vicinity: kinematics and abundance analysis
• Signatures of the Galactic bar in high-order moments of proper motions measured by Gaia
• A Kinematic History of Stellar Encounters with Beta Pictoris
• Gaia DR2 and EDR3 data and evolutionary status of post-AGB stars with high radial velocities
• Dynamical model of Praesepe and its tidal tails
• Precision Astrometry, Galactic Mergers, Halo Substructure and Local Dark Matter
• A Recent Supermassive Black Hole Binary in the Galactic Center Unveiled by the Hypervelocity Stars
• The Galactic Center
• VLBI detection of nearby (< 100 pc) young stars: Pilot observations
• Multiplicative Langevin Equation to Reproduce Long-time Properties of Nonequilibrium Brownian Motion
• Photometric Constraints on Intermediate-mass Black Holes in the Galactic Centre
• Dynamical traction and black hole orbital migration
• The Readiness of EVN Telescopes for the SKA-VLBI Era
• The chemical and spatial variations of the bulge's velocity ellipsoids
• The Core-shift of Sagittarius A* as a Discriminant between Disk and Jet Emission Models with millimeter-VLBI
• Calibrating the Color-Magnitude Relation of M Giants by Using Open Clusters
• The Steady State of Intermediate-Mass Black Holes Near a Supermassive Black Hole
• Self-consistent modelling of the Milky Way's Nuclear Stellar Disc
• Galaxy rotation curve based on RGB stars from the Gaia DR3 catalogue
• A Catalogue of Interstellar Material Delivery From Nearby Debris Disks
• Black Hole Motion as Catalyst of Orbital Resonances
• Measurement of High Energy Gamma Rays from 200 MeV to 1 TeV with the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on the International Space Station
• On the possible orbital motion of Sgr A* in the smooth potential of the Milky Way
• Constraining the shape of Milky Way satellites with distance gradients
• Globular clusters of the Gaia Enceladus/Sausage -- I. Orbital and dynamical evolution on cosmological timescales
• How to Build an Empirical Speed Distribution for Dark Matter in the Solar Neighborhood
• Measuring dark matter by modeling interacting galaxies
• Kinematics of the Central Stars Powering Bowshock Nebulae and the Large Multiplicity Fraction of Runaway OB Stars
• Long-Term Cyclicities in Phanerozoic Sea-Level Sedimentary Record and their Potential Drivers (Does the Phanerozoic sea level encode the motion of solar system in the Milky Way ?)