A systematic variation of the stellar initial mass function in early-type galaxies

Abstract

Much of our knowledge of galaxies comes from analysing the radiation emitted by their stars. It depends on the stellar initial mass function (IMF) describing the distribution of stellar masses when the population formed. Consequently knowledge of the IMF is critical to virtually every aspect of galaxy evolution. More than half a century after the first IMF determination, no consensus has emerged on whether it is universal in different galaxies. Previous studies indicated that the IMF and the dark matter fraction in galaxy centres cannot be both universal, but they could not break the degeneracy between the two effects. Only recently indications were found that massive elliptical galaxies may not have the same IMF as our Milky Way. Here we report unambiguous evidence for a strong systematic variation of the IMF in early-type galaxies as a function of their stellar mass-to-light ratio, producing differences up to a factor of three in mass. This was inferred from detailed dynamical models of the two-dimensional stellar kinematics for the large Atlas3D representative sample of nearby early-type galaxies spanning two orders of magnitude in stellar mass. Our finding indicates that the IMF depends intimately on a galaxy's formation history.

4 pages, 2 figures, LaTeX. Accepted for publication as a Nature Letter. More information about our Atlas3D project is available at http://purl.org/atlas3d

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• Detection of Enhanced Central Mass-to-Light Ratios in Low-Mass Early-Type Galaxies: Evidence for Black Holes?
• Dust properties in the cold and hot gas phases of the ATLAS3D early-type galaxies as revealed by AKARI
• Confronting MOND and TeVeS with strong gravitational lensing over galactic scales: an extended survey
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: A Distinct Mass Distribution Explored in Slow-Rotating Early-type Galaxies
• The mass discrepancy acceleration relation in early-type galaxies: extended mass profiles and the phantom menace to MOND
• Mergers in Galaxy Groups. II. The Fundamental Plane of Elliptical Galaxies
• The Influence of Galaxy Environment on the Stellar Initial Mass Function of Early-Type Galaxies
• On the shape and evolution of a cosmic ray regulated galaxy-wide stellar initial mass function
• Multimass modelling of Milky Way globular clusters -- I. Implications on their stellar initial mass function above 1 M${}_{\odot }$
• Comparing Models for IMF Variation Across Cosmological Time in Milky Way-like Galaxies
• A New Approach to Identifying the Most Powerful Gravitational Lensing Telescopes
• Star formation quenching imprinted on the internal structure of naked red nuggets
• The Atacama Cosmology Telescope: the stellar content of galaxy clusters selected using the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect
• Testing Verlinde's emergent gravity in early-type galaxies
• Evidence for Two Distinct Stellar Initial Mass Functions : Probing for Clues to the Dichotomy
• The SWELLS Survey. VI. hierarchical inference of the initial mass functions of bulges and discs
• The Cosmic Microwave Background and the Stellar Initial Mass Function
• CLASH: Extending galaxy strong lensing to small physical scales with distant sources highly-magnified by galaxy cluster members
• A ~600 pc view of the strongly-lensed, massive main sequence galaxy J0901: a baryon-dominated, thick turbulent rotating disk with a clumpy cold gas ring at z = 2.259
• Evolution of galaxy habitability
• Cosmic clocks: A Tight Radius - Velocity Relationship for HI-Selected Galaxies
• Circumstellar Dust, PAHs, and Stellar Populations in Early-Type Galaxies: Insights from GALEX and WISE
• What does (not) drive the variation of the low-mass end of the stellar initial mass function of early-type galaxies
• Modelling the Observed Stellar Mass Function and its Radial Variation in Galactic Globular Clusters
• Angular Momentum across the Hubble sequence from the CALIFA survey
• What to expect from dynamical modelling of galactic haloes
• On the absolute age of the metal-rich globular M71 (NGC 6838): I. optical photometry
• The hybrid solution for the Fundamental Plane
• The Initial Mass Function of Lens Galaxies from Quasar Microlensing
• Giant disk galaxies : Where environment trumps mass in galaxy evolution
• Optically-Selected BLR-less Active Galactic Nuclei from the SDSS Stripe82 Database I: The Sample
• Made-to-measure modeling of observed galaxy dynamics
• The massive dark halo of the compact, early-type galaxy NGC 1281
• The density of dark matter haloes of early-type galaxies in low-density environments
• Non-Universal Stellar Initial Mass Functions: Large Uncertainties in Star Formation Rates at $z\approx 2-4$ and Other Astrophysical Probes
• Disc cloaking: Establishing a lower limit to the number density of local compact massive spheroids/bulges and the potential fate of some high-z red nuggets
• Dark Matter and IMF normalization in Virgo dwarf early-type galaxies
• The discrepancy between dynamical and stellar masses in massive compact galaxies traces non-homology
• INSPIRE: INvestigating Stellar Population In RElics IV. The Initial Mass Function slope in relics
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: Environmental dependence of the Mgb/<Fe>-sigma_* relation for nearby galaxies
• The Hector Survey: integral field spectroscopy of 100,000 galaxies
• Is the IMF in ellipticals bottom-heavy? Clues from their chemical abundances
• Single Colour Diagnostics of the Mass-to-light Ratio: Predictions from Galaxy Formation Models
• Evidence for Two Distinct Stellar Initial Mass Functions : Revisiting the Effects of Cluster Dynamical Evolution
• Probing the peak of the star formation rate density with the extragalactic background light
• The statistical properties of stars at redshift, z=5, compared with the present epoch
• A tale of a rich cluster at z$\sim$0.8 as seen by the Star Formation Histories of its ETGs
• Color-Magnitude Relations within Globular Cluster Systems of Giant Elliptical Galaxies: The Effects of Globular Cluster Mass Loss and the Stellar Initial Mass Function
• Stellar dynamics in the strong-lensing central galaxy of Abell 1201: A low stellar mass-to-light ratio, a large central compact mass, and a standard dark matter halo
• Origin of a bottom-heavy stellar initial mass function in elliptical galaxies
• Baryonic properties of nearby galaxies across the stellar-to-total dynamical mass relation
• Compact galaxies and the size-mass galaxy distribution from a colour-selected sample at 0.04 < z < 0.15 supplemented by ugrizYJHK photometric redshifts
• Accuracy and precision of triaxial orbit models I: SMBH mass, stellar mass and dark-matter halo
• A Precise Benchmark for Cluster Scaling Relations: Fundamental Plane, Mass Plane and IMF in the Coma Cluster from Dynamical Models
• Reconciling stellar dynamical and hydrostatic X-ray mass measurements of an elliptical galaxy with gas rotation, turbulence and magnetic fields
• The galaxy-wide stellar initial mass function in the presence of cluster-to-cluster IMF variations
• Merger-driven evolution of the effective stellar initial mass function of massive early-type galaxies
• The WAGGS project -- III. Discrepant mass-to-light ratios of Galactic globular clusters at high metallicity
• Environmental variation of the low-mass IMF
• Further constraints on variations in the IMF from LMXB populations
• Globular Cluster Populations: First Results from S${}^4$G Early-Type Galaxies
• What Regulates Galaxy Evolution? Open Questions in Our Understanding of Galaxy Formation and Evolution
• Variations of the Initial Mass Function in Semi-Analytical models
• The X-shooter Lens Survey - II. Sample presentation and spatially resolved kinematics
• The effect of second generation populations on the integrated colors of metal-rich globular clusters in early-type galaxies
• Stellar Population and Elemental Abundance Gradients of Early-type Galaxies
• On the origin of the gamma-ray emission from Omega Centauri: Milisecond pulsars and dark matter annihilation
• Wolf-Rayet galaxies in SDSS-IV MaNGA. II. Metallicity dependence of the high-mass slope of the stellar initial mass function
• Variation of the low-mass end of the stellar initial mass function with redshift and metallicity
• Project Dinos II: Redshift evolution of dark and luminous matter density profiles in strong-lensing elliptical galaxies across 0.1 < z < 0.9
• Semi-analytic spectral fitting: simultaneously modelling the mass accumulation and chemical evolution in MaNGA spiral galaxies
• Improved mass constraints for two nearby strong-lensing elliptical galaxies from Hubble Space Telescope Imaging
• The First Billion Years project: gamma-ray bursts at z>5
• Detailed shapes of the line-of-sight velocity distributions in massive early-type galaxies from non-parametric spectral models
• Measuring the total and baryonic mass profiles of the very massive CASSOWARY 31 strong lens. A fossil system at z ~ 0.7?
• Testing the Universality of the Stellar IMF with Chandra and HST
• The Imprint of Element Abundance Patterns on Quiescent Galaxy SEDs
• The Carnegie-Irvine Galaxy Survey. X. Bulges in Stellar Mass-based Scaling Relations
• Golden gravitational lensing systems from the Sloan Lens ACS Survey. II. SDSS J1430+4105: A precise inner total mass profile from lensing alone
• Mild radial variations of the stellar IMF in the bulge of M31
• Dark matter fraction of low-mass cluster members probed by galaxy-scale strong lensing
• Triaxial Schwarzschild Models of NGC 708: a 10-billion solar mass black hole in a low dispersion galaxy with a Kroupa IMF
• Bayesian fitting of multi-Gaussian expansion models to galaxy images
• Variation in the stellar initial mass function from the chromospheric activity of M dwarfs in early-type galaxies
• The Initial Mass Function in the Extended Ultraviolet Disk of M83
• An assessment of the evidence from ATLAS3D for a variable initial mass function
• Fast Rotators at Cosmic Noon: Stellar Kinematics for 15 Quiescent Galaxies from JWST-SUSPENSE
• The Fundamental Plane of cluster spheroidal galaxies at z$\sim 1.3$. Evidence for mass-dependent evolution
• On Galaxies and Homology
• Subaru Hyper Suprime-Cam Survey of Cygnus OB2 Complex -- I: Introduction, Photometry and Source Catalog
• An Empirical Connection between the UV Color of Early Type Galaxies and the Stellar Initial Mass Function
• Colour gradients of high-redshift Early-Type Galaxies from hydrodynamical monolithic models
• VIMOS mosaic integral-field spectroscopy of the bulge and disk of the early-type galaxy NGC 4697
• Can we use Weak Lensing to Measure Total Mass Profiles of Galaxies on 20 kiloparsec Scales?
• Dark matter inside early-type galaxies as function of mass and redshift
• Discovery of two Einstein crosses from massive post--blue nugget galaxies at z>1 in KiDS
• The connection between the UV colour of early type galaxies and the stellar initial mass function revisited
• Serendipitous discovery of a strong-lensed galaxy in integral field spectroscopy from MUSE
• MaNGA DynPop -- IV. Stacked total density profile of galaxy groups and clusters from combining dynamical models of integral-field stellar kinematics and galaxy-galaxy lensing
• Probing the Milky Way stellar and brown dwarf initial mass function with modern microlensing observations
• Destruction of wide binary stars in low mass elliptical galaxies: implications for initial mass function estimates
• A hierarchical Bayesian approach for reconstructing the Initial Mass Function of Single Stellar Populations
• Correlations between SNe Ia Rates and Host Galaxy Properties
• Recovery of the low- and high-mass end slopes of the IMF in massive early-type galaxies using detailed elemental abundances
• Implications of galaxy buildup for putative IMF variations in massive galaxies
• Early-Type Galaxies: Elliptical and S0 Galaxies, or Fast and Slow Rotators
• On Disentangling IMF Degeneracies in Integrated Light
• A modern view of galaxies and their stellar populations
• Dynamical masses of brightest cluster galaxies II: constraints on the stellar IMF
• Unveiling the Influence of Dark Matter in Axially Symmetric Galaxies
• Simple interpolation functions for the galaxy-wide stellar initial mass function and its effects in early-type galaxies
• The SAMI Galaxy Survey: The contribution of different kinematic classes to the stellar mass function of nearby galaxies
• How much dark matter is there inside early-type galaxies?
• The High Mass Slope of the IMF
• The stellar mass function and efficiency of galaxy formation with a varying initial mass function
• The Fornax3D project: Intrinsic Correlations between Orbital Properties and the Stellar Initial Mass Function
• Variation of the stellar initial mass function in semi-analytical models III: testing the cosmic ray regulated integrated galaxy-wide initial mass function
• Stellar velocity dispersion and initial mass function gradients in dissipationless galaxy mergers
• A counter-image to the gravitational arc in Abell 1201: Evidence for IMF variations, or a $10^{10}$M${}_{\odot }$ black hole?
• Understanding the extreme luminosity of DES14X2fna
• The central dark matter fraction of massive early-type galaxies
• Lower mass normalization of the stellar initial mass function for dense massive early-type galaxies at z ~ 1.4
• Evolution of the high-mass end of the stellar initial mass functions in starburst galaxies
• The dark matter halo concentration and stellar initial mass function of a CASSOWARY group
• The Effect of the Remnant Mass in Estimating Stellar Mass of Galaxies
• MaNGA DynPop -- VI. Matter density slopes from dynamical models of 6000 galaxies versus cosmological simulations: the interplay between baryonic and dark matter
• The Pressure of the Star Forming ISM in Cosmological Simulations
• Semi-empirical catalog of early-type galaxy-halo systems: dark matter density profiles, halo contraction and dark matter annihilation strength
• The influence of the cloud virial parameter on the initial mass function
• The Initial Mass Function and Other Stellar Properties Across the Core of the Hydra I Cluster
• Constraints on the evolutionary mechanisms of massive galaxies since $z\sim 1$ from their velocity dispersions
• The fundamental plane of evolving red nuggets
• The Bottom-Light Present Day Mass Function of the Peculiar Globular Cluster NGC 6535
• Yonsei Evolutionary Population Synthesis (YEPS) Model. III. Surface Brightness Fluctuation of Normal and Helium-enhanced Simple Stellar Populations
• The Lost Dwarfs of Centaurus A and the Formation of its Dark Globular Clusters
• COLIBRE: calibrating subgrid feedback in cosmological simulations that include a cold gas phase
• The quantity of dark matter in early-type galaxies and its relation to the environment
• 3 things they don't tell you about star clusters
• Measuring the stellar population parameters of the early-type galaxy NGC 3923 -- The challenging measurement of the initial mass function
• Dark matter in massive galaxies
• [Mg/Fe] and variable initial mass function: Revision of [$\alpha$/Fe] for massive galaxies
• Initial Mass Function Variation in two Elliptical Galaxies using Near-Infrared Tracers
• The ALPINE-ALMA [CII] Survey: Unveiling the baryon evolution in the ISM of $z\sim 5$ star-forming galaxies
• Velocity offset between emission and absorption lines might be an effective indicator of dual core system
• Intrinsic mass-richness relation of clusters from THE THREE HUNDRED hydrodynamic simulations
• Total and dark mass from observations of galaxy centers with Machine Learning
• The Pristine survey: XXVII. The extremely metal-poor stream C-19 stretches over more than 100 degrees
• A Maximum Parsimony analysis of the effect of the environment on the evolution of galaxies
• Explaining the stellar initial mass function with the theory of spatial networks
• Multiple populations within globular clusters in Early-type galaxies Exploring their effect on stellar initial mass function estimates
• A new way to measure the distance to NGC1052-DF2
• Feeding the Dead: Neutral Gas Inflow in a Long-Quenched Ancient Massive Galaxy at $z\sim 2.7$ Observed with JWST/NIRSpec
• Hierarchical Bayesian inference of the Initial Mass Function in Composite Stellar Populations
• Comparing IMF-sensitive indices of intermediate-mass quiescent galaxies in various environments
• An Observational Perspective of the IMF: Progress and Challenges
• Measuring the mass of the supermassive black hole of the lenticular galaxy NGC 4546
• Stellar initial mass function variation in massive early-type galaxies: the potential role of the deuterium abundance
• The Small Magellanic Cloud through the lens of the James Webb Space Telescope : binaries and mass function within the galaxy outskirts
• Barless flocculent galaxies: a dynamic puzzle
• Observational dynamics of low-mass stellar systems
• Constraining galaxy properties with complete samples of lenses
• Virial models and Anisotropy of Velocity Dispersion in e-galaxies
• Star-forming Galaxies in Intermediate Redshift Clusters: Stellar vs. Dynamical Masses of Luminous Compact Blue Galaxies
• Dynamics of Companion Galaxies of Early-Type Galaxies
• The environmental dependence of the stellar mass fundamental plane of early-type galaxies
• Multiscale probability transformation of basic probability assignment
• A Comparison of Full Spectral Fitting Codes for Measuring the Stellar Initial Mass Function and Other Stellar Population Properties in Elliptical Galaxies
• Dissecting the 3D structure of elliptical galaxies with gravitational lensing and stellar kinematics
• On the origin of the Fundamental Plane and Faber-Jackson relations: consequences for the star formation problem
• IAUS295 -- The Intriguing Life of Massive Galaxies: Introducing the Final Discussion
• Dynamical masses of early-type galaxies at z~2
• A stellar dynamical mass measurement of an inactive black hole at redshift 2
• Optical+NIR analysis of a Newly Confirmed Einstein ring at z$\sim$1 from the Kilo-Degree Survey: Dark matter fraction, total and dark matter density slope and IMF
• Connection between dynamically derived IMF normalisation and stellar populations
• Systematics in ETG Mass Profile Modelling: Strong Lensing & Stellar Dynamics
• When did the initial mass function become bottom-heavy?
• Past, present and Future of the Scaling Relations of Galaxies and Active Galactic Nuclei
• Dynamical Mass Determinations and Scaling Relations of Early-Type Galaxies
• The Stellar Initial Mass Function and Population Properties of M89 from Optical and NIR Spectroscopy: Addressing Biases in Spectral Index Analysis
• Stars throw their weight in old galaxies
• Milky-Way-like stars in a galaxy core 8 billion years ago revealed by gravitational lensing
• The stellar populations of massive galaxies in the local Universe
• Chemical Enrichment of Isolated Relic Galaxy Mrk1216
• Reconciling concentration to virial mass relations
• Variations of the stellar Initial Mass Function in Semi-Analytic Models: implications for the mass assembly of galaxies in the GAEA model
• Bayesian discrimination of the panchromatic spectral energy distribution modelings of galaxies
• Fornax 3D project: assessing the diversity of IMF and stellar population maps within the Fornax Cluster
• Cross-checking SMBH mass estimates in NGC 6958 -- I: Stellar dynamics from adaptive optics-assisted MUSE observations
• Neutron-capture elements record the ordered chemical evolution of the disc over time
• Initial Mass Function for Massive Galaxies at z$\sim$1
• Distance function of D numbers
• Further evidence for large central mass-to-light ratios in massive early-type galaxies