An Analytic Model for the Evolution of the Stellar, Gas, and Metal Content of Galaxies

Abstract

We present an analytic formalism that describes the evolution of the stellar, gas, and metal content of galaxies. It is based on the idea, inspired by hydrodynamic simulations, that galaxies live in a slowly-evolving equilibrium between inflow, outflow, and star formation. We argue that this formalism broadly captures the behavior of galaxy properties evolving in simulations. The resulting equilibrium equations for the star formation rate, gas fraction, and metallicity depend on three key free parameters that represent ejective feedback, preventive feedback, and re-accretion of ejected material. We schematically describe how these parameters are constrained by models and observations. Galaxies perturbed off the equilibrium relations owing to inflow stochasticity tend to be driven back towards equilibrium, such that deviations in star formation rate at a given mass are correlated with gas fraction and anti-correlated with metallicity. After an early gas accumulation epoch, quiescently star-forming galaxies are expected to be in equilibrium over most of cosmic time. The equilibrium model provides a simple intuitive framework for understanding the cosmic evolution of galaxy properties, and centrally features the cycle of baryons between galaxies and surrounding gas as the driver of galaxy growth.

11 pages, MNRAS, accepted

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• WISDOM project -- VIII. Multi-scale feedback cycles in the brightest cluster galaxy NGC 0708
• The complementary roles of feedback and mergers in building the gaseous halo and the X-ray corona of Milky Way-sized galaxies
• Into the Lyα jungle: exploring the circumgalactic medium of galaxies at z ~ 4-5 with MUSE
• Stochastic Modelling of Star Formation Histories III. Constraints from Physically-Motivated Gaussian Processes
• Coevolution of metallicity and star formation in galaxies to z=3.7: II. A theoretical model
• A controlled study of cold dust content in galaxies from $z=0-2$
• SIMBA-C: An updated chemical enrichment model for galactic chemical evolution in the SIMBA simulation
• New Analytic Solutions for Galaxy Evolution II: Wind Recycling, Galactic Fountains and Late-Type Galaxies
• Luminosity bias: from haloes to galaxies
• Mass-Metallicity Relation for Local Analogs of High-Redshift galaxies: Implications for the Evolution of the Mass-Metallicity Relations
• Early results from GLASS-JWST. XXVII. The mass-metallicity relation in lensed field galaxies at cosmic noon with NIRISS
• Exploiting synergies between JWST and cosmic 21-cm observations to uncover star formation in the early Universe
• Galaxy Ecosystems: gas contents, inflows and outflows
• The OSIRIS Lens-Amplified Survey (OLAS) I: Dynamical Effects of Stellar Feedback in Low Mass Galaxies at z ~ 2
• Stellar and Gaseous Disk Structures in Cosmological Galaxy Equilibrium Models
• M101: Spectral Observations of HII Regions and Their Physical Properties
• Dust, gas, and metal content in star-forming galaxies at $z\sim 3.3$ revealed with ALMA and Near-IR spectroscopy
• Quantifying Baryonic Feedback on Warm-Hot Circumgalactic Medium in CAMELS Simulations
• On the dearth of ultra-faint extremely metal poor galaxies
• Quasi-equilibrium models of high-redshift disc galaxy evolution
• Spatially Resolved Outflows in a Seyfert Galaxy at z = 2.39
• Herschel and Hubble study of a lensed massive dusty starbursting galaxy at $z\sim 3$
• The impact of dark energy on galaxy formation. What does the future of our Universe hold?
• Gas Accretion and Galactic Chemical Evolution: Theory and Observations
• Star-forming rings in lenticular galaxies: origin of the gas
• HI gas content of SDSS galaxies revealed by ALFALFA: implications for the mass-metallicity relation and the environmental dependence of HI in the local Universe
• Hybrid analytic and machine-learned baryonic property insertion into galactic dark matter haloes
• Evidence of a Bottom-heavy Initial Mass Function in Massive Early-type Galaxies from Near-infrared Metal Lines
• Entrainment of Hot Gas into Cold Streams: The Origin of Excessive Star-formation Rates at Cosmic Noon
• Probing the baryon cycle of galaxies with SPICA mid- and far-infrared observations
• How feedback shapes galaxies: an analytic model
• The Flatness and Sudden Evolution of the Intergalactic Ionizing Background
• Dead or Alive? How Bursty Star Formation and Patchy Dust Can Cause Temporary Quiescence in High Redshift Galaxies
• The Role of Inner HI Mass in Regulating the Scatter of the Mass-Metallicity Relation
• Galaxy interactions in filaments and sheets: effects of the large-scale structures versus the local density
• How to measure metallicity from five-band photometry with supervised machine learning algorithms
• Local and global gas metallicity versus stellar age relation in MaNGA galaxies
• Understanding the Observed Evolution of the Galaxy Luminosity Function from z=6-10 in the Context of Hierarchical Structure Formation
• WISDOM project -- XI. Star Formation Efficiency in the Bulge of the AGN-host Galaxy NGC 3169 with SITELLE and ALMA
• The relationship between gas and galaxies at z<1 using the Q0107 quasar triplet
• Little Red Dots as Direct-collapse Black Hole Nurseries
• The Redshift Evolution of the Relation between Stellar Mass, Star Formation Rate, and Gas Metallicity of Galaxies
• Metallicity calibrations of low star-forming galaxies: the influence of a stochastic IMF
• The SFR-radius connection: data and implications for wind strength and halo concentration
• Recent progress in simulating galaxy formation from the largest to the smallest scales
• The two regimes of the cosmic sSFR evolution are due to spheroids and discs
• A spectroscopic study of a rich cluster at z=1.52 with Subaru $\&$ LBT: the environmental impacts on the mass-metallicity relation
• Hubble Space Telescope [O III] Emission-Line Kinematics in Two Nearby QSO2s: A Case for X-ray Feedback
• Dust in High-Redshift Galaxies: Reconciling UV Attenuation and IR Emission
• Star Formation Variability as a Probe for the Baryon Cycle within Galaxies
• Circumgalactic gas at its extreme: tidal gas streams around the Whale galaxy NGC 4631 explored with HST/COS
• Revealing the Nature of a Lyman-$\alpha$ Halo in a Strongly Lensed Interacting System at $z=2.92$
• The Chemical Abundance Structure of the Inner Milky Way: A Signature of "Upside-Down" Disk Formation?
• Gas Accretion Traced in Absorption in Galaxy Spectroscopy
• Narrow C IV absorption doublets on quasar spectra of the Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey
• Molecular gas budget and characterization of intermediate-mass star-forming galaxies at $z\approx 2-3$
• The Metal Abundances across Cosmic Time ($\mathcal{M}\mathcal{A}\mathcal{C}\mathcal{T}$) Survey. III -- The relationship between stellar mass and star formation rate in extremely low-mass galaxies
• A Global Semi-Analytic Model of the First Stars and Galaxies Including Dark Matter Halo Merger Histories
• The star-forming main sequence and the contribution of dust-obscured star formation since $z\sim 4$ from the FUV+IR luminosity functions
• The origin of correlations between mass, metallicity and morphology in galaxies from the EAGLE simulation
• Constraints on galactic outflows from the metallicity-stellar mass-SFR relation of EAGLE simulation and SDSS galaxies
• MusE GAs FLOw and Wind (MEGAFLOW) VII. A NOEMA pilot program to probe molecular gas in galaxies with measured circumgalactic gas flows
• First results from SMAUG: Insights into star formation conditions from spatially-resolved ISM properties in TNG50
• Positive feedback at the disc-halo interface
• The Direct-Method Oxygen Abundance of Typical Dwarf Galaxies at Cosmic High-Noon
• The THESAN-ZOOM project: Star-formation efficiencies in high-redshift galaxies
• From haloes to galaxies. III. The gas cycle of local galaxy populations
• Dependence of Nebular Heavy-Element Abundance on H I Content for Spiral Galaxies
• Galaxy And Mass Assembly (GAMA): Gas Fuelling of Spiral Galaxies in the Local Universe II. -- Direct Measurement of the Dependencies on Redshift and Host Halo Mass of Stellar Mass Growth in Central Disk Galaxies
• The impact of the cosmological constant on past and future star formation
• The correlations between galaxy properties in different environments of the cosmic web
• A stochastic model to reproduce the star-formation history of individual galaxies in hydrodynamic simulations
• Seeking Self-Regulating Simulations of Idealized Milky Way-Like Galaxies
• ALMA Observations for CO Emission from Luminous Lyman-break Galaxies at $z=6.0293$-$6.2037$
• Galaxy interactions in filaments and sheets: insights from EAGLE simulations
• Toward a stellar population catalog in the Kilo Degree Survey: the impact of stellar recipes on stellar masses and star formation rates
• Variations of the ISM Compactness Across the Main Sequence of Star-Forming Galaxies: Observations and Simulations
• ALPINE: A Large Survey to Understand Teenage Galaxies
• The JWST EXCELS Survey: gas-phase metallicity evolution at 2 < z < 8
• Modelling the mass accretion histories of dark matter haloes using a Gamma formalism
• The Dwarf Galaxy Population at $z\sim 0.7$: A Catalog of Emission Lines and Redshifts from Deep Keck Observations
• Simulating gas kinematic studies of high-redshift galaxies with the HARMONI Integral Field Spectrograph
• Dark-ages reionization and galaxy formation simulation - IX. Economics of reionizing galaxies
• Low Metallicity Galaxies from the Dark Energy Survey
• Anatomy of galactic star formation history: Roles of different modes of gas accretion, feedback, and recycling
• Star formation across cosmic time
• Discovery of faint double-peak Halpha emission in the halo of low redshift galaxies
• GRB 241105A: A test case for GRB classification and rapid r-process nucleosynthesis channels
• Galaxy Manifold: Characterizing and understanding galaxies with two parameters
• Tracing the Origins of Hot Halo Gas in Milky Way-Type Galaxies with SMUGGLE
• Gas Accretion and Star-Formation Rates with IFUs and Background Quasars
• The inflow and outflow rate evolution of local Milky Way-mass star-forming galaxies since z=1.3
• Quantifying stochasticity-driven uncertainties in H II region metallicities
• The origin of galaxy colour bimodality in the scatter of the Stellar-to-Halo Mass Relation
• Relatively Fast and Reasonably Furious: Evidence for Increased Burstiness in Smaller Halos at Cosmic Dawn
• Prospects for extending the Mass-Metallicity Relation to low mass at high redshift: a case study at z~1
• Extended Hernquist-Springel formalism for cosmic star formation
• A phenomenological approach to the evolution of galaxies
• A systematic study of AGN feedback in a disk galaxy using MACER II: predictions of X-ray surface brightness profiles and comparison with eROSITA observations
• The AURORA Survey: Tracing Galactic Outflows at $z\gtrsim 2.5$ with JWST/NIRSpec NUV Absorption Lines
• Populating Galaxies Into Halos Via Machine Learning on the Simba Simulation
• From Dark Matter Minihalos to Large-Scale Radiative Feedback: A Self-Consistent 3D Simulation of the First Stars and Galaxies using Neural Networks
• The link between star formation and gas in nearby galaxies
• Gas flows in galaxy mergers: supersonic turbulence in bridges, accretion from the circumgalactic medium, and metallicity dilution