Tracing the Origins of Hot Halo Gas in Milky Way-Type Galaxies with SMUGGLE

Abstract

Current galaxy formation models predict the existence of X-ray-emitting gaseous halos around Milky Way (MW)-type galaxies. To investigate properties of this coronal gas in MW-like galaxies, we analyze a suite of high-resolution simulations based on the SMUGGLE framework and compare the results with X-ray observations of both the MW and external galaxies. We find that for subgrid models incorporating any form of stellar feedback, e.g., early feedback (including stellar winds and radiation) and/or supernova (SN) explosions, the total 0.5-2 keV luminosity is consistent within uncertainties with X-ray observations of the MW and with scaling relations derived for external disk galaxies. However, all models exhibit an X-ray surface brightness profile that declines too steeply beyond $\sim 5$ kpc, underpredicting the extended emission seen in recent eROSITA stacking results. Across all subgrid prescriptions, the simulated surface brightness and emission measure fall below MW observations by at least 1-2 orders of magnitude, with the most severe discrepancy occurring in the no-feedback model. Our results suggest that (i) stellar feedback primarily shapes the innermost hot atmosphere (central $\sim 5$ kpc), with comparable contributions from early feedback and SNe to the resulting X-ray luminosity; (ii) additional mechanisms such as gravitational heating, active galactic nuclei feedback, and/or Compton effects of GeV cosmic ray are necessary to generate the extended, volume-filling hot gaseous halo of MW-mass galaxies; (iii) the origins of hot corona in MW-like galaxies are partially distinct from those of the warm ($\sim 10^5$ K) gas, by combining our previous finding that the SMUGGLE model successfully reproduces the kinematics and spatial distribution of MW O VI absorbers.

arXiv comment13 pages, 7 figures, 1 table;

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• A systematic study of AGN feedback in a disk galaxy using MACER II: predictions of X-ray surface brightness profiles and comparison with eROSITA observations