A Molecular Star Formation Law in the Atomic Gas Dominated Regime in Nearby Galaxies

Abstract

We use the IRAM HERACLES survey to study CO emission from 33 nearby spiral galaxies down to very low intensities. Using atomic hydrogen (HI) data, mostly from THINGS, we predict the local mean CO velocity from the mean HI velocity. By renormalizing the CO velocity axis so that zero corresponds to the local mean HI velocity we are able to stack spectra coherently over large regions as function of radius. This enables us to measure CO intensities with high significance as low as Ico = 0.3 K km/s (H2_SD = 1 Msun/pc2), an improvement of about one order of magnitude over previous studies. We detect CO out to radii Rgal = R25 and find the CO radial profile to follow a uniform exponential decline with scale length of 0.2 R25. Comparing our sensitive CO profiles to matched profiles of HI, Halpha, FUV, and IR emission at 24um and 70um, we observe a tight, roughly linear relation between CO and IR intensity that does not show any notable break between regions that are dominated by molecular (H2) gas (H2_SD > HI_SD) and those dominated by atomic gas (H2_SD < HI_SD). We use combinations of FUV+24um and Halpha+24um to estimate the recent star formation rate (SFR) surface density, SFR_SD, and find approximately linear relations between SFR_SD and H2_SD. We interpret this as evidence for stars forming in molecular gas with little dependence on the local total gas surface density. While galaxies display small internal variations in the SFR-to-H2 ratio, we do observe systematic galaxy-to-galaxy variations. These galaxy-to-galaxy variations dominate the scatter in relations between CO and SFR tracers measured at large scales. The variations have the sense that less massive galaxies exhibit larger ratios of SFR-to-CO than massive galaxies. Unlike the SFR-to-CO ratio, the balance between HI and H2 depends strongly on the total gas surface density and radius. It must also depend on additional parameters.

Accepted for publication in the Astronomical Journal, 28 pages, 25 figures; footnote changed in version 2

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• The fate of supernova remnants near quiescent supermassive black holes
• The effect of diffuse background on the spatially-resolved Schmidt relation in nearby spiral galaxies
• Spectral Stacking of Radio-Interferometric Data
• Volumetric Star Formation Prescriptions in Vertically Resolved Edge-on Galaxies
• Beyond the Solar Circle $-$ Trends in Massive Star Formation Between the Inner and Outer Galaxy
• ALMA CO(3-2) Observations of Star-Forming Filaments in a Gas-Poor Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy
• PHANGS-ALMA: Arcsecond CO(2-1) Imaging of Nearby Star-Forming Galaxies
• A comparison of the Milky Way's recent star formation revealed by dust thermal emission and high-mass stars
• The Bluedisk Survey: molecular gas distribution and scaling relations in the context of galaxy evolution
• The complete census of molecular hydrogen in a simulated disc galaxy
• CO(2-1)/CO(1-0) line ratio on $\sim$100 parsec scale in the nearby barred galaxy NGC1300
• Coupling local to global star formation in spiral galaxies: the effect of differential rotation
• Spinning Bar and a Star-formation Inefficient Repertoire: Turbulence in Hickson Compact Group NGC7674
• Galaxies with Declining Rotation Curves
• Molecular gas in distant brightest cluster galaxies
• Star Formation in Massive Clusters via Bondi Accretion
• The Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array Local Group L-band Survey (LGLBS)
• Identification of molecular clouds in emission maps: a comparison between methods in the \ce{^{13}CO}/\ce{C^{18}O} ($J=3-2$) Heterodyne Inner Milky Way Plane Survey
• Molecular Gas and Star Formation in the Cartwheel
• The Star Formation Relation for Regions in the Galactic Plane: The Effect of Spatial Resolution
• High Resolution H I Distributions and Multi-Wavelength Analyses of Magellanic Spirals NGC 4618 and NGC 4625
• Kennicutt-Schmidt relation variety and star-forming cloud fraction
• Breaking the degeneracy between gas inflow and outflows with stellar metallicity: Insights on M101
• Theoretical modelling of two-component molecular discs in spiral galaxies
• A search for dust and molecular gas in enormous Ly$\alpha$ nebulae at $z\approx 2$
• Star formation activity beyond the outer Arm I: WISE-selected candidate star-forming regions
• The Similar Signatures of Coplanar Gas Inflow and Disk Warps in Galactic Gas Kinematic Maps
• The Molecular Mass function of the Local Universe
• Properties of Bulgeless Disk Galaxies II. Star Formation as a Function of Circular Velocity
• The James Clerk Maxwell Telescope Nearby Galaxies Legacy Survey IX: ${}^{12}$CO $J=3\to 2$ Observations of NGC 2976 and NGC 3351
• ALMA CO(2-1) observations in the XUV disk of M83
• Understanding the Star Formation Efficiency in Dense Gas: Initial Results from the CAFFEINE Survey with ArTéMiS
• An HI study of the collisional ring galaxy NGC 922
• A nearly constant CN/HCN line ratio in nearby galaxies: CN as a new tracer of dense gas
• CO Multi-line Imaging of Nearby Galaxies (COMING). X. Physical conditions of molecular gas and the local SFR-Mass relation
• Kpc-scale properties of dust temperature in terms of dust mass and star formation activity
• Chemical evolution of galaxies: emerging dust and the different gas phases in a new multiphase code
• Centrally concentrated molecular gas driving galactic-scale ionised gas outflows in star-forming galaxies
• Implementing Dust Shielding as a Criteria for Star Formation
• Metallicity Dependence of Molecular Cloud Hierarchical Structure at Early Evolutionary Stages
• SDSS-IV MaNGA: Constraints on the Conditions for Star Formation in Galaxy Discs
• The role of environment on the star formation history of disc galaxies
• The Opacity of Spiral Galaxy Disks IX; Dust and Gas Surface Densities
• HYACINTH: HYdrogen And Carbon chemistry in the INTerstellar medium in Hydro simulations
• Mapping non-axisymmetric velocity fields of external galaxies
• Probing star formation and ISM properties using galaxy disk inclination III: Evolution in dust opacity and clumpiness between redshift 0.0 < z < 0.7 constrained from UV to NIR
• NOEMA Observations of a Molecular Cloud in the low-metallicity Galaxy Kiso 5639
• Modelling H${}_2$ and its effects on star formation using a joint implementation of GADGET-3 and KROME
• A pilot study using deep infrared imaging to constrain the star formation history of the XUV stellar populations in NGC 4625
• SQuIGG$\vec{L}$E: Observational Evidence of Low Ongoing Star Formation Rates in Gas-Rich Post-Starburst Galaxies
• SEEDisCS II. Molecular gas in galaxy clusters and their large scale structure: low gas fraction galaxies, the case of CL1301.7$-$1139
• From Gas to Stars Over Cosmic Time
• The EDGE-CALIFA survey: Star formation relationships for galaxies at different stages of their evolution
• Galaxy luminosity function and its cosmological evolution: Testing a new feedback model depending on galaxy-scale dust opacity
• The Evolution of Interacting Spiral Galaxy NGC 5194
• CO Multi-line Imaging of Nearby Galaxies (COMING). VII. Fourier decomposition of molecular gas velocity fields and bar pattern speed
• Hydrogen volume densities in nearby galaxies I - an automated approach
• The contribution of young core-collapse supernova remnants to the X-ray emission near quiescent supermassive black holes
• The disk averaged star formation relation for Local Volume dwarf galaxies
• The hot gas distribution, X-ray luminosity and baryon budget in the L-Galaxies semi-analytic model of galaxy formation
• Exploring extreme conditions for star formation: a deep search for molecular gas in the Leo ring
• Star formation drivers across the M33 disk
• A 260 pc resolution ALMA map of HCN(1-0) in the galaxy NGC 4321
• ALMA FACTS. II. Large Scale Variations in the 12CO(J=2-1) to 12CO(J=1-0) Line Ratio in Nearby Galaxies
• Gas surface density, star formation rate surface density, and the maximum mass of young star clusters in a disk galaxy. II. The grand-design galaxy M51
• The unusual ISM in Blue and Dusty Gas Rich Galaxies (BADGRS)
• The magnetic field in the Flame nebula
• Unveiling the Main Sequence to Starburst Transition Region with a Sample of Intermediate Redshift Luminous Infrared Galaxies
• The ALPINE-CRISTAL-JWST survey: spatially resolved star formation relations at $z\sim 5$
• Deep kiloparsec view of the molecular gas in a massive star-forming galaxy at cosmic noon
• H1821+643: The most X-ray and infrared luminous AGN in the Swift/BAT survey in the process of rapid stellar and supermassive black hole mass assembly
• The Volumetric Star Formation Law in the Almost Edge-on Galaxy NGC 4302 Revealed by ALMA
• Kennicutt-Schmidt relation of galaxies over 13 billion years in the COLIBRE hydrodynamical simulations
• Relating spatially resolved optical attenuation, dust and gas in nearby galaxies
• Interpreting Millimeter Emission from IMEGIN galaxies NGC 2146 and NGC 2976
• The Star Formation Relation in Nearby Galaxies
• The HASHTAG project: The First Submillimeter Images of the Andromeda Galaxy from the Ground
• From Gas to Stars over Cosmic Time
• CO-to-H${}_2$ conversion factor and grain size distribution through the analysis of ${\alpha }_{\mathrm{CO}}$-$q_{\mathrm{PAH}}$ relation
• Star Formation for Predictive Primordial Galaxy Formation
• On Schmidt's Conjecture and Star Formation Scaling Laws
• The Mitchell Spectrograph: Studying Nearby Galaxies with the VIRUS Prototype
• Predicting the resolved CO emission of $z=1-3$ star-forming galaxies
• SILCC -- IX. The multi-phase interstellar medium at low metallicity
• Investigating Galactic Fountains in M101: Insights from Ionized, UV emissions and Neutral Gas
• The LEGA-C galaxy survey: multiple quenching channels for quiescent galaxies at $z\sim 1$
• On the scale-height of the molecular gas disc in Milky Way-like galaxies
• Dust and inclination corrected star-formation and interstellar medium scaling relations in nearby galaxies
• The young stellar clusters in M51 and the impact of GMC encounters
• The Supernova-ISM/Star formation Interplay
• Now you see it, now you don't: Star formation truncation precedes the loss of molecular gas by ~100 Myr in massive post-starburst galaxies at z~0.6
• The IRAM M33 CO(2-1) Survey - A complete census of the molecular gas out to 7 kpc
• The Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Southern Treasury (PHAST). II. The Spatially Resolved Recent Star Formation History in M31