Mass loss from hot massive stars

Abstract

Mass loss is a key process in the evolution of massive stars, and must be understood quantitatively to be successfully included in broader astrophysical applications. In this review, we discuss various aspects of radiation driven mass loss, both from the theoretical and the observational side. We focus on winds from OB-stars, with some excursions to the Luminous Blue Variables, Wolf- Rayet stars, A-supergiants and Central Stars of Planetary Nebulae. After reca- pitulating the 1-D, stationary standard model of line-driven wind, extensions accounting for rotation and magnetic fields are discussed. The relevance of the so-called bi-stability jump is outlined. We summarize diagnostical methods to infer wind properties from observations, and compare the results with theore- tical predictions, featuring the massloss-metallicity dependence. Subsequently, we concentrate on two urgent problems which challenge our present understanding of radiation driven winds: weak winds and wind- clumping. We discuss problems of measuring mass-loss rates from weak winds and the potential of NIR- spectroscopy. Wind-clumping has severe implications for the interpretation of observational diagnostics, as derived mass-loss rates can be overestimated by factors of 2 to 10 if clumping is ignored, and we describe ongoing attempts to allow for more uniform results. We point out that independent arguments from stellar evolution favor a moderate reduction of present- day mass-loss rates. We also consider larger scale wind structure, interpreted in terms of co-rotating interacting regions, and complete this review with a discussion of recent progress on the X-ray line emission from massive stars, highlighting as to how far the analysis of such X-ray line emission can give further clues regarding an adequate description of wind clumping. (Abridged abstract)

Astronomy and Astrophysics Review (accepted)

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• Ultraviolet and visual flux and line variations of one of the least variable Bp stars HD 64740
• Time, spatial, and spectral resolution of the Halpha line-formation region of Deneb and Rigel with the VEGA/CHARA interferometer
• How common is LBV S Dor variability at low metallicity?
• CMF models of hot star winds I. Test of the Sobolev approximation in the case of pure line transitions
• A Radio Pulsar Search of the Gamma-ray Binaries LS I +61 303 and LS 5039
• X-ray absorption and occultation in LS 5039
• Mass-loss predictions for evolved very metal-poor massive stars
• Mass-loss rates of Very Massive Stars
• X-ray properties of early-type stars in the Tarantula Nebula from T-ReX
• Collective non-thermal emission from an extragalactic jet interacting with stars
• Short Term Variability of Evolved Massive Stars with TESS
• X-ray study of bow shocks in runaway stars
• The IACOB project X. Large-scale quantitative spectroscopic analysis of Galactic luminous blue stars
• SN 2017ivv: two years of evolution of a transitional Type II supernova
• Global Simulations of the Interaction of Microquasar Jets with a Stellar Wind in High-Mass X-ray Binaries
• Population III X-ray Binaries and their Impact on the Early Universe
• An Updated Formalism For Line-Driven Radiative Acceleration and Implications for Stellar Mass Loss
• Gamma-ray bursts and Population III stars
• Propulsion of Spacecrafts to Relativistic Speeds Using Natural Astrophysical Sources
• Short-term variability and mass loss in Be stars IV. Two groups of closely spaced, approximately equidistant frequencies in three decades of space photometry of $\nu$ Puppis (B7-8 IIIe)
• Self Regulated Shocks in Massive Star Binary Systems
• The IACOB project IX. Building a modern empirical database of Galactic O9-B9 supergiants: sample selection, description, and completeness
• X-ray emission from the double-binary OB-star system QZ Car (HD 93206)
• A radio-map of the colliding winds in the very massive binary system HD 93129A
• The dynamic X-ray nebula powered by the pulsar B1259-63
• The Role of Inhomogeneities in Supernova Shock Breakout Emission
• Gamma rays from clumpy wind-jet interactions in high-mass microquasars
• Short-term variability and mass loss in Be stars V. Space photometry and ground-based spectroscopy of $\gamma$ Cas
• Optical studies of two stripped envelope supernovae SN 2015ap (Type Ib) and SN 2016P (Type Ic)
• New hydrodynamic solutions for line-driven winds of hot massive stars using Lambert $W$-function
• Probing the weak wind phenomenon in Galactic O-type giants
• The VLT-FLAMES Tarantula Survey XXVII. Physical parameters of B-type main-sequence binary systems in the Tarantula nebula
• The stellar wind velocity field of HD 77581
• The Spectral Temperature of Optically Thick Outflows with Application to Light Echo Spectra from $\eta$~Carinae's Giant Eruption
• Demonstration of a novel method for measuring mass-loss rates for massive stars
• ASASSN-16fp (SN 2016coi): A transitional supernova between Type Ic and broad-lined Ic
• X-Shooting ULLYSES: Massive Stars at low metallicity IX: Empirical constraints on mass-loss rates and clumping parameters for OB supergiants in the Large Magellanic Cloud
• Evolution of massive stars with new hydrodynamic wind models
• 3D radiative transfer: Continuum and line scattering in non-spherical winds from OB stars
• Magnetism in High-Mass Stars
• Nonthermal radiation from the central region of super-accreting active galactic nuclei
• Formation and Destiny of White Dwarf and Be Star Binaries
• Classical OBe Stars as Post-Supernova Runaways: Confirming Binary Origins
• Self-consistent solutions for line-driven winds of hot massive stars. The m-CAK procedure
• Shock-heated radiation-driven outflows as a solution to the weak-wind problem of late O-type stars
• Wind accretion: Theory and Observations
• Quantitative spectroscopy of late O-type main-sequence stars with a hybrid non-LTE method
• Effect of scattering on the transonic solution topology and intrinsic variability of line-driven stellar winds
• Searching for the expelled hydrogen envelope in Type I supernovae via late-time H-alpha emission
• e-MERLIN 21cm constraints on the mass-loss rates of OB stars in Cyg OB2
• Spectroscopic and photometric oscillatory envelope variability during the S Doradus outburst of the Luminous Blue Variable R71
• Hydrodynamic Winds From Twin-Star Binaries
• VLTI/AMBER observations of the binary B[e] supergiant HD 327083
• First detections of FS Canis Majoris stars in clusters. Evolutionary state as constrained by coeval massive stars
• Reverse Algols and hydrogen-rich Wolf-Rayet stars from very massive binaries
• Mass loss and stellar superwinds
• TYC 3159-6-1: a runaway blue supergiant
• Eclipse Mapping of EXO 0748-676: Evidence for a Massive Neutron Star
• The SPHERE view of Wolf-Rayet 104
• Spectroscopic and physical parameters of Galactic O-type stars. I. Effects of rotation and spectral resolving power in the spectral classification of dwarfs and giants
• Characterization of the variability in the O+B eclipsing binary HD 165246
• Radiation-Driven Wind Hydrodynamics of Massive Stars: A Review
• The Wolf-Rayet binaries of the nitrogen sequence in the Large Magellanic Cloud: spectroscopy, orbital analysis, formation, and evolution
• The IACOB project XI. No increase of mass-loss rates over the bistability region
• Dissecting the microphysics behind the metallicity-dependence of massive stars radii
• The Origins of X-ray Line Emissions in Circinus~X-1 at Very Low X-ray Flux
• X-Shooting ULLYSES: Massive stars at low metallicity. IV. Spectral analysis methods and exemplary results for O stars
• Sgr A* and its Environment: Low Mass Star Formation, the Origin of X-ray Gas and Collimated Outflow
• The "Red Radio Ring": Ionised and Molecular Gas in a Starburst/Active Galactic Nucleus at $z\sim 2.55$
• The Polstar High Resolution Spectropolarimetry MIDEX Mission
• Influence of XUV radiation on Pv ionization fraction in hot star winds
• Method and new tabulations for flux-weighted line-opacity and radiation line-force in supersonic media
• X-ray source population study of the starburst galaxy M83 with XMM-Newton
• Empirical mass-loss rates and clumping properties of O-type stars in the LMC
• X-ray emission from hydrodynamical simulations in non-LTE wind models
• PION: Simulating bow shocks and circumstellar nebulae
• Multiple short-lived stellar prominences on O stars: The O6.5I(n)fp star lambda Cephei
• Supersonic Expansion of the Bipolar Hii Region Sh2-106: A 3,500 Year-Old Explosion?
• Sample of hydrogen-rich superluminous supernovae from the Zwicky Transient Facility
• The zenithal 4-m International Liquid Mirror Telescope: a unique facility for supernova studies
• XMM-Newton and Swift observations of supergiant high mass X-ray binaries
• Extracting high-level information from gamma-ray burst supernova spectra
• On the super-orbital modulation of supergiant high mass X-ray binaries
• Comprehensive UV and Optical spectral analysis of Cygnus X-1: Stellar and wind parameters, abundances, and evolutionary implications
• SIROCCO: A Publicly Available Monte Carlo Ionization and Radiative Transfer Code for Astrophysical Outflows
• A Transparent Window into Early-Type Stellar Variability
• Combined spectroscopy and intensity interferometry to determine the distances of the blue supergiants P Cygni and Rigel
• Theoretical wind clumping predictions from 2D LDI models of O-star winds at different metallicities
• Monitoring luminous yellow massive stars in M33: new yellow hypergiant candidates
• The First Billion Years project: gamma-ray bursts at z>5
• Search for exoplanets and brown dwarfs with VLBI
• Simulating the Response of the Secondary Star of Eta Carinae to Mass Accretion at Periastron Passage
• Modeling the effects of clumpy winds in the high-energy light curves of γ-ray binaries
• Fast flaring observed from XMMU J053108.3-690923 by eROSITA: a supergiant fast X-ray transient in the Large Magellanic Cloud
• HI Lyman-alpha equivalent widths of stellar populations
• Long-term XMM-Newton investigation of two particle-accelerating colliding-wind binaries in NGC6604: HD168112 and HD167971
• Mechanical feedback from stellar winds with an application to galaxy formation at high redshift
• Monte Carlo Simulations of Polarimetric and Light Variability from Corotating Interaction Regions in Hot Stellar Winds
• The H-alpha Variations of the Luminous Blue Variable P Cygni: Discrete Absorption Components and the Short S Doradus Phase
• New self-consistent wind parameters fitting optical spectra of O-type stars observed with HERMES spectrograph
• Whispering in the dark: Faint X-ray emission from black holes with OB star companions
• A semi-analytical treatment to wind accretion in neutron star supergiant high mass X-ray binaries: I. eccentric orbits
• Hot subdwarf wind models with accurate abundances I. Hydrogen dominated stars HD 49798 and BD+18${}^{\circ }$2647
• The Atomic Physics Underlying the Spectroscopic Analysis of Massive Stars and Supernovae
• Connecting stellar and galactic scales: Energetic feedback from stellar wind bubbles to supernova remnants
• Catalog of the Galactic population of X-ray pulsars in High-mass X-ray binary systems
• Long-term soft and hard X-ray investigation of the colliding wind WN+O binary WR 25
• Constraining the FRB mechanism from scintillation in the host galaxy
• Critical Metallicity of Cool Supergiant Formation. I. Effects on Stellar Mass Loss and Feedback
• Probing clumpy wind accretion in IGR J18027-2016 with XMM-Newton
• X-ray and Radio Variabilities of PSR J2032+4127 near Periastron
• Using Shell Models to Investigate Clumping in the Wind of the O7Iaf+ Supergiant AzV83
• The 2.35 year itch of Cygnus OB2#9 III. X-ray and radio emission analysis based on three dimensional hydrodynamical modelling
• Physics of mass loss in massive stars
• Compact Objects in close orbits as Gravitational Wave Sources: Formation Scenarios and Properties
• Simulations of the line-driven instability in magnetic hot star winds
• Non-thermal emission from the interaction of magnetized exoplanets with the wind of their host star
• Bringing Stellar Evolution & Feedback Together: Summary of proposals from the Lorentz Center Workshop, 2022
• Zeta Oph and the weak-wind problem
• Investigating the metallicity dependence of the mass-loss rate relation of red supergiants
• IRAS 18153-1651: an H II region with a possible wind bubble blown by a young main-sequence B star
• Modeling the Optical to Ultraviolet Polarimetric Variability from Thomson Scattering in Colliding Wind Binaries
• Instability, finite amplitude pulsation and mass-loss in models of massive OB-type stars
• Towards early-type eclipsing binaries as extragalactic milestones: II. NLTE spectral analysis and stellar parameters of the detached O-type system OGLE-LMC-ECL-06782 in the LMC
• Wind properties of variable B supergiants. Evidence of pulsations connected with mass-loss episodes
• To clump or not to clump The impact of wind inhomogeneities on the optical and NIR spectroscopic analysis of massive OB stars
• X-ray Eclipse Mapping Constrains the Binary Inclination and Mass Ratio of Swift J1858.6-0814
• Magnetic Archaeology of Early-Type Stellar Dynamos
• Investigation of the WR 11 field at decimeter wavelengths
• Wind Collision and Accretion Simulations of the Massive Binary System HD 166734
• Wind accretion in Cygnus X-1
• Investigating the observational properties of Type Ib supernova SN 2017iro
• Early Light Curve Excess in Type IIb Supernovae Observed by the ATLAS Survey: Qualitative Constraints on Progenitor Systems
• Co-existence and switching between fast and $\Omega$-slow wind solutions in rapidly rotating massive stars
• The carbon-rich type Ic supernova 2016adj in the iconic dust lane of Centaurus A: signatures of interaction with circumstellar hydrogen?
• Detecting Stars at the Galactic Centre via Synchrotron Emission
• $\Omega$-Slow Solutions and Be Star Disks
• Mass-loss rate by the Mira in the symbiotic binary V1016 Cygni from Raman scattering
• Sudden End of X-Ray Outbursts around Periastron of Circinus X-1 Observed with MAXI
• On the Anti-Correlation between Duration and Redshift in Gamma-ray Bursts
• Near-infrared characterization of four massive stars in transition phases
• Moderate-Resolution Holographic Spectrograph
• Classical Be stars
• The Dynamics of Ultracompact HII Regions
• Statistics of Magrathea exoplanets beyond the Main Sequence. Simulating the long-term evolution of circumbinary giant planets with TRES
• X-Shooting ULLYSES: massive stars at low metallicity: XII. The clumped winds of O-type (super)giants in the Large Magellanic Cloud
• HST/COS Spectra of the Wind Lines of VFTS 102 and 285
• Effect of rotational mixing and metallicity on the hot star wind mass-loss rates
• A Speckle-Imaging Search for Close and Very Faint Companions to the Nearest and Brightest Wolf-Rayet Stars
• Variable millimetre radiation from the colliding-wind binary Cyg OB2 #8A
• Massive stars, successes and challenges
• Theoretical X-ray light curves of young SNe II: the example of SN 2013ej
• The Effective Temperatures of O-type Stars from UV spectroscopy
• Black hole mass function shift in proto-stellar-clusters driven by gas accretion
• Dust-scattering halo and giant hard X-ray flare from the Supergiant Fast X-ray Transient IGR J16479-4514 investigated with XMM-Newton and INTEGRAL
• Helium-Star Models with Optically Thick Winds: Implications for the Internal Structures and Mass-Loss Rates of Wolf-Rayet Stars
• Moving inhomogeneous envelopes of stars
• NLTE wind models of hot subdwarf stars
• SN 2019odp: A Massive Oxygen-Rich Type Ib Supernova
• Properties of massive stars in four clusters of the VVV survey
• OB-stars as extreme condition test beds
• Stress-driven spin-down of a viscous fluid within a spherical shell
• X-Shooting ULLYSES: Massive Stars at Low Metallicity X. Physical Parameters and Feedback of Massive Stars in the LMC N11 B Star-Forming Region
• Hot-star wind models with magnetically split line blanketing
• Heavy element contributions of rotating massive stars to Interstellar Medium
• Eruptive mass loss less than a year before the explosion of superluminous supernovae: I. The cases of SN 2020xga and SN 2022xgc
• Stellar wind variability in Cygnus X-1 from high-resolution excess variance spectroscopy with Chandra
• The non-thermal emission from the colliding-wind binary Apep
• Exploring the Stellar Rotation of Early-type Stars in the LAMOST Medium-resolution Survey. III. Evolution
• X-Shooting ULLYSES: Massive stars at low metallicity. XIII. Putting the bi-stability jump to the test in the LMC
• How Rotation Affects Masses and Ages of Classical Cepheids
• The VLT-FLAMES Tarantula Survey
• Ultraviolet Spectropolarimetry with Polstar: Clumping and Mass-loss Rate Corrections
• On the optical properties of Resonant Drag Instabilities: Variability of Asymptotic Giant Branch and R Coronae Borealis stars
• Detecting the intrinsic X-ray emission from the O-type donor star and the residual accretion in a Supergiant Fast X-ray Transient during its faintest state
• Unraveling the nature of a deeply embedded Wolf-Rayet star WR 121a
• Thermal emission from bow shocks. III. Variable diffuse X-ray emission from stellar-wind bow shocks driven by dynamical instabilities
• Analytical Solutions for Radiation-Driven Winds in Massive Stars. I: The Fast Regime
• An on-the-fly line-driven-wind iterative mass-loss estimator (LIME) for hot, massive stars of arbitrary chemical compositions
• SN2017ckj: A linearly declining Type IIb supernova with a relatively massive hydrogen envelope
• Evolutionary models for the Very Massive Stars in the R136 cluster of 30 Doradus in the Large Magellanic Cloud
• The colliding-wind binary HD 168112
• Clumpy wind studies and the non-detection of cyclotron line in OAO 1657-415
• A near-UV reconnaissance of metal-poor massive stars
• EWOCS-IV: 1Ms ACIS Chandra observation of the supergiant B[e] star Wd1-9
• The wind properties of O-type stars at sub-SMC metallicity
• Origin of young accreting neutron stars in high-mass X-ray binaries in supernova remnants
• Ultraviolet spectroscopy reveals a hot and luminous companion to the Be star+black hole candidate MWC 656
• Explosions of pulsating red supergiants: a natural pathway for the diversity of Type II-P/L supernovae
• Evolution of stars with 60 and 200 Msun: predictions for WNh stars in the Milky Way
• VLTI observations of the Orion Belt stars: I. eps Orionis
• First JWST/NIRSpec Spectroscopy of O Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud
• First Stars. II. Evolution with mass loss
• The feedback of massive stars on interstellar astrochemical processes
• Probing Thin Winds in Massive OB Stars of the SMC with JWST/NIRSPEC Br-alpha Spectroscopy
• NLTE analysis of spectra: OBA stars
• Eruptive mass loss less than a year before the explosion of superluminous supernovae. II. A systematic search for pre-explosion eruptions with VLT/X-shooter
• Spin-up and spin distribution of stellar black holes grown by gas accretion in proto-stellar clusters
• FROST-CLUSTERS -- III. Metallicity-dependent intermediate mass black hole formation by runaway collisions in dense star clusters
• Massive stars in the Tarantula Nebula: A Rosetta Stone for Extragalactic Supergiant HII Regions
• The applicability of the wind compression model
• The VLT-FLAMES Tarantula Survey
• Stochastic accretion and the variability of supergiant fast X-ray transients
• Study of Wolf-Rayet stars using uGMRT
• The OVz stars in NGC 346: distribution, stellar parameters and insights into low-metallicity effects
• Multiwavelength view of massive binaries
• Massive star clusters detected by JWST as natural birth places to form intermediate-mass black holes
• Accretion in massive colliding wind binaries and the effect of wind momentum ratio
• New mass estimates for massive binary systems: a probabilistic approach using polarimetric radiative transfer
• Perspectives for observing hot massive stars with XMM-Newton in the years 2017 -- 2027
• Deriving X-ray Line Profiles for Massive-Star Winds from Momentum-Conserving Dynamical Working Surface Solutions
• Low-frequency spectra of neutron star + OB supergiant binaries: Does wind density drive persistent and flaring modes of accretion?
• Wind accretion onto compact objects
• A hybrid SLAM-Payne framework for atmospheric parameter and abundance determination of early-type Stars from LAMOST DR9 low-resolution Spectra
• Neutron star atmospheres composed of fusion ashes