Molecfit: A general tool for telluric absorption correction. I. Method and application to ESO instruments

Abstract

Context: The interaction of the light from astronomical objects with the constituents of the Earth's atmosphere leads to the formation of telluric absorption lines in ground-based collected spectra. Correcting for these lines, mostly affecting the red and infrared region of the spectrum, usually relies on observations of specific stars obtained close in time and airmass to the science targets, therefore using precious observing time. Aims: We present molecfit, a tool for correcting for telluric absorption lines based on synthetic modelling of the Earth's atmospheric transmission. Molecfit is versatile and can be used with data obtained with various ground-based telescopes and instruments. Methods: Molecfit combines a publicly available radiative transfer code, a molecular line database, atmospheric profiles, and various kernels to model the instrument line spread function. The atmospheric profiles are created by merging a standard atmospheric profile representative of a given observatory's climate, of local meteorological data, and of dynamically retrieved altitude profiles for temperature, pressure, and humidity. We discuss the various ingredients of the method, its applicability, and its limitations. We also show examples of telluric line correction on spectra obtained with a suite of ESO Very Large Telescope (VLT) instruments. Results: Compared to previous similar tools, molecfit takes the best results for temperature, pressure, and humidity in the atmosphere above the observatory into account. As a result, the standard deviation of the residuals after correction of unsaturated telluric lines is frequently better than 2% of the continuum. Conclusion: Molecfit is able to accurately model and correct for telluric lines over a broad range of wavelengths and spectral resolutions. (Abridged)

18 pages, 13 figures, 5 tables, accepted for publication in Astronomy and Astrophysics

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• A multi-epoch, multi-wavelength study of the classical FUor V1515 Cyg approaching quiescence
• Optical and Near-Infrared Radial Velocity Content of M Dwarfs: Testing Models with Barnard's Star
• Determination of small-scale magnetic fields on Sun-like stars in the near-infrared using CRIRES${}^{+}$
• Recurrent strong outbursts of an EXor-like young eruptive star Gaia20eae
• Survey of near-infrared diffuse interstellar bands in $Y$ and $J$ bands. I. Newly identified bands
• The 50-100pc scale parent stellar populations of type II supernovae and limitations of single star evolution models
• Diffuse interstellar bands in the HII region M17: Insights into their relation with the total-to-selective visual extinction $R_V$
• Leaning Sideways: VHS 1256-1257 b is a Super-Jupiter with a Uranus-like Obliquity
• Long-term photometric monitoring and spectroscopy of the white dwarf pulsar AR Scorpii
• The PEPSI Exoplanet Transit Survey. III: The detection of FeI, CrI and TiI in the atmosphere of MASCARA-1 b through high-resolution emission spectroscopy
• A Slowly Precessing Disk in the Nucleus of M31 as the Feeding Mechanism for a Central Starburst
• Systematic uncertainties in the characterisation of helium-dominated metal-polluted white dwarf atmospheres
• Mg II and Fe II fluxes of luminous quasars at z ~ 2.7 and evaluation of the Baldwin effect in the flux-to-abundance conversion method for quasars
• Exploring the planetary-mass population in the Upper Scorpius association
• Near-infrared photometry and spectroscopy of the low Galactic latitude globular cluster 2MASS-GC03
• The impact of spectra quality on nebular abundances
• Ionization bias and the ghost proximity effect near $z\gtrsim 6$ quasars in the shadow of proximate absorption systems
• The H$\alpha$ star formation main sequence in cluster and field galaxies at $z\sim 1.6$
• Accurate effective temperature from H$\alpha$ profiles
• A hyper luminous starburst at z=4.72 magnified by a lensing galaxy pair at z=1.48
• Spatially resolved spectroscopy across stellar surfaces. IV. F, G, & K-stars: Synthetic 3D spectra at hyper-high resolution
• Metallicity, temperature, and gravity scales of M subdwarfs
• MUSE library of stellar spectra
• Titanium chemistry of WASP-121 b with ESPRESSO in 4-UT mode
• Revisiting the evolved hypergiants in the Magellanic Clouds
• Raman mapping of photodissociation regions
• Characterization of exoplanetary atmospheres with SLOPpy
• The accretion process in the DQ Tau binary system
• Gaia21bty: An EXor lightcurve exhibiting an FUor spectrum
• The atmospheric composition of the ultra-hot Jupiter WASP-178 b observed with ESPRESSO
• Investigating 39 Galactic Wolf-Rayet stars with VLTI/GRAVITY: Uncovering A Long Period Binary Desert
• The GAPS programme at TNG: TBD. Studies of atmospheric FeII winds in ultra-hot Jupiters KELT-9b and KELT-20b using HARPS-N spectrograph
• Automated SpectroPhotometric Image REDuction (ASPIRED)
• Stellar Population and Elemental Abundance Gradients of Early-type Galaxies
• Wolf 503 b: Characterization of a Sub-Neptune Orbiting a Metal-Poor K Dwarf
• On the assembly history of massive galaxies. A pilot project with VEGAS deep imaging and M3G integral field spectroscopy
• Revisiting V1309 Sco 2008 outburst spectra. Observational evidence for theoretical modeling of stellar mergers
• Instrument Simulator and Data Reduction Pipeline for the iLocater Spectrograph
• The ESO SupJup Survey VII: Clouds and line asymmetries in CRIRES${}^{+}$ J-band spectra of the Luhman 16 binary
• Near-infrared spectroscopy of the massive stellar population of W51: evidence for multi-seeded star formation
• Optical Spectroscopy of Blazars for the Cherenkov Telescope Array -- II
• Down-the-barrel observations of a multiphase quasar outflow at high redshift: VLT/X-shooter spectroscopy of the proximate molecular absorber at z=2.631 towards SDSS J001514+184212
• Multi-wavelength detection of an ongoing FUOr-type outburst on a low-mass YSO
• Detailed shapes of the line-of-sight velocity distributions in massive early-type galaxies from non-parametric spectral models
• Detection of atmospheric species and dynamics in the bloated hot Jupiter WASP-172~b with ESPRESSO
• The GAPS programme at TNG LX Atmospheric characterisation of KELT-9 b via single-line analysis: Detection of six H I Balmer lines, Na I, Ca I, Ca II, Fe I, Fe II, Mg I, Ti II, Sc II, and Cr II
• Spectroscopic substellar initial mass function of NGC 2244
• An Interpretable Machine Learning Framework for Modeling High-Resolution Spectroscopic Data
• Probing the Progenitors of Type Ia Supernovae using Circumstellar Material Interaction Signatures
• Reconstructing the extended structure of multiple sources strongly lensed by the ultra-massive elliptical galaxy SDSS J0100+1818
• AT 2019abn: multi-wavelength observations over the first 200 days
• The well correlated DIBs at $\lambda \lambda$ 6196, 6614 Å and their possible companions
• Probing gas and dust in the tidal tail of NGC 5221 with the type Ia supernova iPTF16abc
• Optical emission lines in the most massive galaxies: morphology, kinematics and ionisation properties
• [OIII] emission in z=2 quasars with and without Broad Absorption Lines
• No evidence of circumstellar gas surrounding Type Ia Supernova SN 2017cbv
• Optical and near-infrared spectroscopy of the black hole transient 4U 1543-47 during its 2021 ultra-luminous state
• Mild radial variations of the stellar IMF in the bulge of M31
• Near Infrared spectroscopic indices for unresolved stellar populations. I. Template galaxy spectra
• Variations on a theme -- the puzzling behaviour of Schulte 12
• Velocity-imaging the rapidly precessing planetary disc around the white dwarf HE 1349-2305 using Doppler tomography
• Optical and infrared study of the obscured B[e] supergiant high-mass X-ray binary IGR J16318-4848
• A high resolution study of near-IR diffuse interstellar bands, search for small scale structure, time variability and stellar features
• ESPRESSO reveals blueshifted neutral iron emission lines on the dayside of WASP-76 b
• The GALAH survey: New diffuse interstellar bands found in residuals of 872,000 stellar spectra
• Near-UV and optical spectroscopy of comets using the ISIS spectrograph on the WHT
• The PDS 110 observing campaign - photometric and spectroscopic observations reveal eclipses are aperiodic
• The Carnegie Supernova Project II. Observations of SN 2014ab possibly revealing a 2010jl-like SN IIn with pre-existing dust
• The circumstellar environment of EX Lup: the SPHERE and SINFONI views
• HR 10: A main-sequence binary with circumstellar envelopes around both components. Discovery and analysis
• Bolometric Night Sky Temperature and Subcooling of Telescope Structures
• VLT/X-shooter spectroscopy of massive young stellar objects in the 30 Doradus region of the Large Magellanic Cloud
• Euclid preparation. XXVII. A UV-NIR spectral atlas of compact planetary nebulae for wavelength calibration
• The optical and near-infrared spectrum of the Crab pulsar with X-shooter
• Moderately misaligned orbit of the warm sub-Saturn HD 332231 b
• C60 Cation as the Carrier of the 9577 and 9632 Angstrom Diffuse Interstellar Bands: Further Support from the VLT/X-Shooter Spectra
• Empirical Determination of the Lithium 6707.856 Å Wavelength in Young Stars
• Lack of close-in, massive planets of main-sequence A-type stars from Kepler
• Unravelling the Origin of the Counter-Rotating Core in IC 1459 with KMOS and MUSE
• A New Look at Disk Winds and External Photoevaporation in the $\sigma$-Orionis Cluster
• The aftermath of nova Cen 2013 (V1369 Cen)
• X-Shooter Survey of Young Intermediate Mass Stars -- I. Stellar Characterization and Disc Evolution
• Detection of rubidium and samarium in the atmosphere of the ultra-hot Jupiter MASCARA-4b
• Proximate molecular quasar absorbers: Chemical enrichment and kinematics of the neutral gas
• A closer look at LTT 9779b: The ESPRESSO endeavour to pierce the atmospheric veil
• The IAG Solar Flux Atlas: Telluric Correction With a Semi-Empirical Model
• Using Independent Component Analysis to detect exoplanet reflection spectrum from composite spectra of exoplanetary binary systems
• MAGAZ3NE: Massive, Extremely Dusty Galaxies at $z\sim 2$ Lead to Photometric Overestimation of Number Densities of the Most Massive Galaxies at $3<z<4$
• The GAPS Programme at TNG. XXX: Characterization of the low-density gas giant HAT-P-67 b with GIARPS
• A spectroscopic map of the Galactic centre -- Observations and resolved stars
• Recovery of the low- and high-mass end slopes of the IMF in massive early-type galaxies using detailed elemental abundances
• A correction method for the telluric absorptions and application to Lijiang Observatory
• Near-infrared spectroscopy of embedded protostars in the massive metal-poor star-forming region NGC 346
• The planetary nebula IC 5148 and its ionized halo
• Resolving the inner accretion flow towards the central supermassive black hole in SDSS J1339+1310
• NGTS J214358.5-380102 -- NGTS discovery of the most eccentric known eclipsing M-Dwarf binary system
• High-resolution spectroscopy and spectropolarimetry of the total lunar eclipse January 2019
• Tracing a decade of activity towards a yellow hypergiant. The spectral and spatial morphology of IRC+10420 at au scales
• Hydride ion continuum hides absorption signatures in the NIRPS near-infrared transmission spectrum of the ultra-hot gas giant WASP-189b
• Mid-Infrared Observations of the Giant Planets
• Massive pre-main-sequence stars in M17: $1^{\mathrm{st}}$ and $2^{\mathrm{nd}}$ overtone CO bandhead emission and the thermal infrared
• An unusually large gaseous transit in a debris disc
• Kilonova evolution -- the rapid emergence of spectral features
• Probing Na in giant exoplanets with ESPRESSO and 3D NLTE stellar spectra
• PENELLOPE VII: Revisiting empirical relations to measure accretion luminosity
• See Change: VLT spectroscopy of a sample of high-redshift Type Ia supernova host galaxies
• The spectroscopic binary fraction of the young stellar cluster M17
• Retrieving day- and nightside atmospheric properties of the ultra-hot Jupiter TOI-2109b. Detection of Fe and CO emission lines and evidence for inefficient heat transport
• Spectral characterization of young LT dwarfs
• A wide angle view of the Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy -- II. A CEMP-r/s star in the Sagittarius dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy
• The ESO SupJup Survey VIII. Chemical fingerprints of young L dwarf twins
• Extreme winds on the emerging dayside of an ultrahot Jupiter
• Accurate fundamental parameters and distance to a massive early-type eclipsing binary in the Danks 2 cluster
• MUSE observations of comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko: A reference for future comet observations with MUSE
• Characterization of exoplanetary atmospheres through a model-unbiased spectral survey methodology
• Improved precision of radial velocity measurements after correction for telluric absorption
• Solar photospheric spectrum microvariability II. Observed relations to magnetic activity and radial-velocity modulation
• The first spectroscopically confirmed brown dwarfs in NGC 2264
• Elemental abundances in the remnant of the ancient eruption of CK Vulpeculae
• The Initial Mass Function and Other Stellar Properties Across the Core of the Hydra I Cluster
• Modelling of integrated-light spectra from the optical to the near-infrared: the globular cluster G280 in M31
• X-SHYNE: X-Shooter spectra of young exoplanet analogs II. Presentation and analysis of the full library
• First black hole mass estimation for the quadruple lensed system WGD2038-4008
• MUSE observations of NGC330 in the Small Magellanic Cloud. Helium abundance of bright main sequence stars
• SN 2020zbf: A fast-rising hydrogen-poor superluminous supernova with strong carbon lines
• PENELLOPE V. The magnetospheric structure and the accretion variability of the classical T Tauri star HM Lup
• Decoding the X-ray flare from MAXI J0709-159 using optical spectroscopy and multi-epoch photometry
• Exocomets of $\beta$ Pictoris I: Exocomet destruction, sodium and disk line variability in 17 years of HARPS observations
• viper: High-precision radial velocities from the optical to the infrared (Reaching 3 m/s in the K band of CRIRES+ with telluric modelling)
• Measuring the stellar population parameters of the early-type galaxy NGC 3923 -- The challenging measurement of the initial mass function
• Identifying two groups of massive stars aligned in the $l\sim 38^{\circ }$ Galactic direction
• A Time-Resolved High-Resolution Spectroscopic Analysis of Ionized Calcium and Dynamical Processes in the Ultra-Hot Jupiter HAT-P-70 b
• A multi-kiloGauss magnetic field driving the magnetospheric accretion process in EX Lupi
• Multimessenger observations of counterparts to IceCube-190331A
• The relic galaxy NGC~1277 rules out intermediate-age stellar populations origin of CO-strong absorptions in massive early-type galaxies
• Radial Velocity Measurements of an Orbiting Star Around Sgr A*
• Structure, variability, and origin of the low-latitude nightglow continuum between 300 and 1,800 nm: Evidence for HO${}_2$ emission in the near-infrared
• Atmospheric Mass Loss from TOI-1259 A b, a Gas Giant Planet With a White Dwarf Companion
• An unusual reservoir of water emission in the VV CrA A protoplanetary disk
• CO radial gradients in the bulge of M31
• High-resolution transmission spectroscopy of the hot-Saturn HD 149026b
• Exploring the atmosphere of GJ 1132 b with CRIRES+
• Observations of UX Ori in deep minima with the Nordic Optical Telescope. I. Analysis of spectral lines
• The A-shell star Phi Leo revisited: its photospheric and circumstellar spectra
• Probing accretion and stellar properties in the Orion Nebula with VLT/X-Shooter
• Refined Telluric Absorption Correction for Low-Resolution Ground-Based Spectroscopy: Resolution and Radial Velocity Effects in the O2 A-Band for Exoplanets and K I Emission Lines
• Observing the changing surface structures of the active K giant sigma Gem with SONG
• Tighter constraints on the atmosphere of GJ 436 b from combined high-resolution CARMENES and CRIRES${}^{+}$ observations
• The GAPS programme at TNG LXVI. A homogeneous search for Na i and its possible variability in ten gas giant exoplanets
• CRIRES high-resolution infrared spectroscopy of the long-period Cepheid l Car
• Study of the atmospheric conditions at Cerro Armazones using astronomical data
• The substellar population in Corona Australis
• V838 Monocerotis as seen by ALMA: a remnant of a binary merger in a triple system
• Retrieving the transmission spectrum of HD 209458b using CHOCOLATE: A new chromatic Doppler tomography technique
• Short- and long-term variations of the high mass accretion rate classical T Tauri star DR Tau
• The Qz5 Survey (I): How the HI Mass Density of the Universe Evolves With Cosmic Time
• Investigating silicate, carbon, and water in the diffuse interstellar medium: the first shots from WISCI
• The ESPRESSO transmission spectrum of HD189733b : Extracting the planetary sodium and lithium signatures amid stellar contamination
• No TiO detected in the hot Neptune-desert planet LTT-9779 b in reflected light at high spectral resolution
• PEPSI Investigation, Retrieval, and Atlas of Numerous Giant Atmospheres (PIRANGA). III. Composition and winds in the atmosphere of TOI-1518 b
• Helium escaping from the atmosphere of a nearby rocky exoplanet orbiting in a habitable zone
• Stellar Karaoke: deep blind separation of terrestrial atmospheric effects out of stellar spectra by velocity whitening
• Hot Exoplanet Atmospheres Resolved with Transit Spectroscopy (HEARTS) VIII. Nondetection of sodium in the atmosphere of the aligned planet KELT-10b
• CN and CO Features: Key Indicators of Red Giant Evolutionary Phase in Moderate-Resolution X-Shooter Spectra
• High-spectral resolution M-band observations of CO Rot-Vib absorption lines towards the Galactic center
• Precise near-infrared photometry, accounting for precipitable water vapour at SPECULOOS Southern Observatory
• A Broad Absorption Line Outflow Associated with the Broad Emission Line Region in the Quasar SDSS J075133.35+134548.3
• Abundance analysis of benchmark M dwarfs
• Transmission of the AtmosPhere for AStronomical data: TAPAS upgrade
• Near-infrared spectra of the inflated post-common envelope brown dwarf NLTT 5306B
• Atmospheric composition of WASP-85Ab with ESPRESSO/VLT observations
• The GAPS Programme at TNG. LXIX.The Dayside of WASP-76b revealed by GIANO-B, HARPS-N and ESPRESSO: Evidence for Three-Dimensional Atmospheric Effects
• Effective Emission Heights of Various OH Lines From X-shooter and SABER Observations of a Passing Quasi-2-Day Wave
• Discovery of a brown dwarf with quasi-spherical mass-loss
• A near-UV reconnaissance of metal-poor massive stars
• Black Hole masses for 14 gravitational lensed quasars
• Dynamical mass of the white dwarf in XY Ari: a test for intermediate polar X-ray spectral models
• The mid-infrared spectrum of $\beta$ Pictoris b. First VLTI/MATISSE interferometric observations of an exoplanet
• The GAPS programme at TNG -- LXIII. Photo-evaporating puzzle: Exploring the enigmatic nature of TOI-5398 b atmospheric signal
• Structure of the accretion flow of IX Velorum as revealed by high-resolution spectroscopy
• The EDIBLES survey VI. Searching for time variations of interstellar absorption features
• PEPSI Investigation, Retrieval, and Atlas of Numerous Giant Atmospheres (PIRANGA). IV. High-Resolution Phased-Resolved Spectroscopy of The Ultra Hot Jupiter KELT-20 b
• Performance of ESPRESSO's high resolution 4x2 binning for characterizing intervening absorbers towards faint quasars
• TILARA: Template-Independent Line-by-line Algorithm for Radial velocity Analysis. I. Description of the code and application on a Sun-like star
• Transmission spectroscopy of WASP-7 b with UVES -- Detection of Na I D${}_2$ and tentative D${}_1$ line absorption
• Open Source High-Resolution Exoplanet Atmosphere Retrievals with POSEIDON
• PALACE v1.0: Paranal Airglow Line And Continuum Emission model
• Survey for Distant Solar Twins (SDST) -- II. Design, observations and data
• PEPSI's non-detection of escaping hydrogen and metal lines adds to the enigma of WASP-12 b
• WINERED high-resolution near-infrared line catalog: A-type star
• New members of the Lupus I cloud based on Gaia astrometry Physical and accretion properties from X-Shooter spectra
• Magnetic field strengths of hot giant exoplanets consistent with Solar System values
• Do White Dwarfs Sample Water-Rich Planetary Material?
• Systematic Study of the Inner Structure of Molecular Tori in Nearby U/LIRGs using Velocity Decomposition of CO Rovibrational Absorption Lines
• One H2 molecule per ten million H-atoms reveals sub-pc scale cold overdensities at z~4
• A Comparison of Full Spectral Fitting Codes for Measuring the Stellar Initial Mass Function and Other Stellar Population Properties in Elliptical Galaxies
• The physical properties of candidate neutrino-emitter blazars
• Probing the geological setting of exoplanets through atmospheric analysis: using Mars as a test case
• Multi-spin stellar velocity maps of the most massive galaxies
• High CO/H2 ratios supports an exocometary origin for a CO-rich debris disk
• Obliquity Constraints on the Planetary-mass Companion HD 106906 b
• VVV-WIT-13: an eruptive young star with cool molecular features
• The Gaia Ultracool Dwarf Sample -- IV. GTC/OSIRIS optical spectra of Gaia late-M and L dwarfs
• SMARTY: The mileS Moderate resolution neAr-infRared sTellar librarY
• A Search for Planetary Metastable Helium Absorption in the V1298 Tau System
• Classification of 3 accreting binaries with VLT/X-Shooter spectra
• Discovery of a transiting hot water-world candidate orbiting Ross 176 with TESS and CARMENES
• A study of the photometric and spectroscopic variations of the prototypical FU Orionis-type star V1057 Cyg
• Measuring Diffuse Interstellar Bands with cool stars. An improved line list to model the background stellar spectra
• A redshifted excess in the broad emission lines after the flare of the $\gamma$-ray narrow-line Seyfert 1 PKS 2004-447
• Telluric absorption lines in the ALMA spectra of $\eta$ Car
• Revisiting the atmosphere of HAT-P-70b with CARMENES high-resolution transmission spectroscopy
• Modeling Circumstellar Gas Emission around a White Dwarf Using Cloudy
• Probing the extent of WASP-52 b's atmosphere. High-resolution observations and 3D modeling insights
• Exploring the surface of HD 189733 via Doppler shadow analysis of planetary transits
• TOI-1518b: A Misaligned Ultra-hot Jupiter with Iron in its Atmosphere
• The highly magnetic Wolf-Rayet binary HD 45166 resolved with VLTI/GRAVITY
• Variability of the DG Tau Forbidden Emission Line Low Velocity Component
• Metallicities in M dwarfs: Investigating different determination techniques
• CARMENES detection of the CaII infrared triplet and possible evidence of HeI in the atmosphere of WASP-76b
• Characterisation of an EXor outburst SPICY 97589
• Gaia FGK Benchmark Stars: Selecting Infrared Lines for Abundance Determination
• I Can Do It With A Broken Planetesimal: Characterising the planetary debris in heavily polluted cool white dwarfs
• Potential sublimating exocomets around the young star PDS 70
• Study of the Inner Structure of the Molecular Torus in IRAS 08572+3915 NW with Velocity Decomposition of CO Rovibrational Absorption Lines
• The Stellar Initial Mass Function and Population Properties of M89 from Optical and NIR Spectroscopy: Addressing Biases in Spectral Index Analysis
• Unveiling accretion in the massive YSO G033.3891. Spatial and kinematic constraints from the CO bandhead emission
• Ionized Gas Outflows and Shock-Heated Emission in the Highly Inclined Active Galaxy CGCG 012-070
• HD 44892: The youngest (or oldest?) gas-harbouring debris disc around an intermediate mass star