Clumps in the Outer Disk by Disk Instability: Why They are Initially Gas Giants and the Legacy of Disruption

Abstract

We explore the initial conditions for fragments in the extended regions ($r\gtrsim 50$ AU) of gravitationally unstable disks. We combine analytic estimates for the fragmentation of spiral arms with 3D SPH simulations to show that initial fragment masses are in the gas giant regime. These initial fragments will have substantial angular momentum, and should form disks with radii of a few AU. We show that clumps will survive for multiple orbits before they undergo a second, rapid collapse due to H${}_2$ dissociation and that it is possible to destroy bound clumps by transporting them into the inner disk. The consequences of disrupted clumps for planet formation, dust processing, and disk evolution are discussed. We argue that it is possible to produce Earth-mass cores in the outer disk during the earliest phases of disk evolution.

Accepted for publication in Icarus. The arguments have been greatly expanded (from v1) to address comments by the referees

References in corpus (32)

• Direct Imaging of Multiple Planets Orbiting the Star HR 8799
• Using FU Orionis Outbursts to Constrain Self-Regulated Protostellar Disk Models
• Gasoline: An adaptable implementation of TreeSPH
• Fundamental differences between SPH and grid methods
• Accretion Disks Around Young Objects. III. Grain Growth
• Modelling discontinuities and Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities in SPH
• The Burst Mode of Protostellar Accretion
• The properties of brown dwarfs and low-mass hydrogen-burning stars formed by disc fragmentation
• An energy-conserving formalism for adaptive gravitational force softening in SPH and N-body codes
• The Runts of the Litter: Why planets formed through gravitational instability can only be failed binary stars
• The Two Modes of Gas Giant Planet Formation
• Characterising the Gravitational Instability in Cooling Accretion Discs
• The evolution of gravitationally unstable protoplanetary disks: fragmentation and possible giant planet formation
• Brown dwarf formation by gravitational fragmentation of massive, extended protostellar discs
• Nonlinear Outcome of Gravitational Instability in Disks with Realistic Cooling
• Fragmentation of gravitationally unstable gaseous protoplanetary disks with radiative transfer
• The Thermal Regulation of Gravitational Instabilities in Protoplanetary Disks III. Simulations with Radiative Cooling and Realistic Opacities
• Resolving mixing in Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics
• Type I Planetary Migration with MHD Turbulence
• Numerical requirements for simulations of self gravitating and non-self gravitating disks
• On Gas-Drag Induced Rapid Migration of Solids in a Non-Uniform Solar Nebula
• Dynamics of Circumstellar Disks
• Core Formation in Giant Gaseous Protoplanets
• Gravitational Instabilities, Chondrule Formation, and the FU Orionis Phenomenon
• Metallicity of the Massive Protoplanets Around HR 8799 If Formed by Gravitational Instability
• Gravitational Instabilities in Gaseous Protoplanetary Disks and Implications for Giant Planet Formation
• Hydraulic/Shock-Jumps in Protoplanetary Disks
• The Bimodality of Accretion In T Tauri Stars and Brown Dwarfs
• Line Structure in the Spectrum of FU Orionis
• The Formation of Fragments at Corotation in Isothermal Protoplanetary Disks
• Protoplanetary disk fragmentation with varying radiative physics, initial conditions and numerical techniques
• The Three-Dimensional Behavior of Spiral Shocks in Protoplanetary Disks

Cited by in corpus (155)

• The PLATO 2.0 Mission
• Planet-disk interaction and orbital evolution
• Gravitational Instabilities in Circumstellar Disks
• Dynamics of Protoplanetary Disks
• Characterization of exoplanets from their formation I: Models of combined planet formation and evolution
• Towards Chemical Constraints on Hot Jupiter Migration
• Direct Imaging of a Cold Jovian Exoplanet in Orbit around the Sun-like Star GJ 504
• A Triple Protostar System Formed via Fragmentation of a Gravitationally Unstable Disk
• Challenges in Forming Planets by Gravitational Instability: Disk Irradiation and Clump Migration, Accretion & Tidal Destructio
• Variable protostellar accretion with episodic bursts
• Formation of planets by tidal downsizing of giant planet embryos
• Rapid inward migration of planets formed by gravitational instability
• The Directly Imaged Planet around the Young Solar Analog 1RXS J160929.1-210524: Confirmation of Common Proper Motion, Temperature and Mass
• Formation of close binaries by disc fragmentation and migration, and its statistical modeling
• Formation of Giant Planets by Disk Instability on Wide Orbits Around Protostars with Varied Masses
• Formation of giant planets and brown dwarfs on wide orbits
• Towards a Population Synthesis Model of Objects formed by Self-Gravitating Disc Fragmentation and Tidal Downsizing
• A giant exoplanet orbiting a very low-mass star challenges planet formation models
• Planet-Planet Scattering Alone Cannot Explain the Free-Floating Planet Population
• The VLT/NaCo large program to probe the occurrence of exoplanets and brown dwarfs at wide orbits: II- Survey description, results and performances
• A Disk Around the Planetary-Mass Companion GSC 06214-00210 b: Clues About the Formation of Gas Giants on Wide Orbits
• A Hybrid Scenario for the Formation of Brown Dwarfs and Very Low Mass Stars
• Direct formation of supermassive black holes in metal-enriched gas at the heart of high-redshift galaxy mergers
• A lower fragmentation mass scale in high redshift galaxies and its implications on giant clumps: a systematic numerical study
• Towards a population synthesis model of self-gravitating disc fragmentation and tidal downsizing II: The effect of fragment-fragment interactions
• Numerical convergence in self-gravitating shearing sheet simulations and the stochastic nature of disc fragmentation
• On The Possibility of Enrichment and Differentiation in Gas Giants During Birth by Disk Instability
• The route to massive black hole formation via merger-driven direct collapse: a review
• A numerical simulation of a "super-Earth" core delivery from ~ 100 AU to ~ 8 AU
• Fu Ori outbursts and the planet-disc mass exchange
• On the gap-opening criterion of migrating planets in protoplanetary disks
• Heavy metal rules. I. Exoplanet incidence and metallicity
• Formation, Orbital and Internal Evolutions of Young Planetary Systems
• In situ formation of SgrA* stars via disk fragmentation: parent cloud properties and thermodynamics
• Migration of Gas Giant Planets in Gravitationally Unstable Disks
• The Jeans Mass as a Fundamental Measure of Self-Gravitating Disc Fragmentation and Initial Fragment Mass
• Fragment Production and Survival in Irradiated Disks: A Comprehensive Cooling Criterion
• The Heavy Element Composition of Disk Instability Planets Can Range From Sub- to Super-Nebular
• Signatures of Gravitational Instability in Resolved Images of Protostellar Disks
• The Effects of Metallicity, and Grain Growth and Settling on the Early Evolution of Gaseous Protoplanets
• On the stellar masses of giant clumps in distant star-forming galaxies
• Numerical convergence in self-gravitating disc simulations: initial conditions and edge effects
• The properties of discs around planets and brown dwarfs as evidence for disc fragmentation
• Formation of terrestrial planet cores inside giant planet embryos
• Rotation in young massive star clusters
• Interactions Between Moderate- and Long-Period Giant Planets: Scattering Experiments for Systems in Isolation and with Stellar Flybys
• Jupiter formed as a pebble pile around the N${}_2$ ice line
• Circumplanetary disks around young giant planets: a comparison between core-accretion and disk instability
• Dawes Review. The tidal downsizing hypothesis of planet formation
• Planet formation from the ejecta of common envelopes
• ALMA Measurements of Circumstellar Material in the GQ Lup System
• The chemistry of protoplanetary fragments formed via gravitational instabilities
• Chemistry in a gravitationally unstable protoplanetary disc
• The Evolution of Circumplanetary Disks around Planets in Wide Orbits: Implications for Formation Theory, Observations, and Moon Systems
• The collapse of protoplanetary clumps formed through disc instability: 3D simulations of the pre-dissociation phase
• Characterization of the gaseous companion κ Andromedae b: New Keck and LBTI high-contrast observations
• Near-Infrared High-Resolution Imaging Polarimetry of FU Ori-Type Objects: Towards A Unified Scheme for Low-Mass Protostellar Evolution
• On the Evolution and Survival of Protoplanets Embedded in a Protoplanetary Disk
• Identifying and Analysing Protostellar Disc Fragments in Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics Simulations
• A wide-orbit giant planet in the high-mass b Centauri binary system
• Embedded protostellar disks around (sub-)solar protostars. I. Disk structure and evolution
• In-situ extreme mass ratio inspirals via sub-parsec formation and migration of stars in thin, gravitationally unstable AGN discs
• Clumpy galaxies seen in H-alpha: inflated observed clump properties due to limited spatial resolution and sensitivity
• The migration of gas giant planets in gravitationally unstable discs
• Tidal Downsizing model. I. Numerical methods: saving giant planets from tidal disruptions
• Embedded protostellar disks around (sub-)solar stars. II. Disk masses, sizes, densities, temperatures and the planet formation perspective
• Gravitational fragmentation and formation of giant protoplanets on tens-of-au orbits
• Understanding planet formation using microgravity experiments
• The fragmentation of protostellar discs: the Hill criterion for spiral arms
• Fragmenting protostellar disks: properties and observational signatures
• Radiative feedback from protoplanets in self-gravitating protoplanetary discs
• Giant Planet Formation by Disk Instability: A Comparison Simulation With An Improved Radiative Scheme
• The Dynamical Fate of Self-Gravitating Disc Fragments After Tidal Downsizing
• A framework for the architecture of exoplanetary systems. I. Four classes of planetary system architecture
• Hot Super Earths: disrupted young jupiters?
• From Disks to Planets
• The effect of radiative feedback on disc fragmentation
• The Tidal Downsizing hypothesis for planet formation and the composition of Solar System comets
• An alternative origin for debris rings of planetesimals
• Formation of intermediate-mass planets via magnetically-controlled disk fragmentation
• Core-assisted gas capture instability: a new mode of giant planet formation by gravitationally unstable discs
• Triggered fragmentation in self-gravitating discs: forming fragments at small radii
• Tidal Downsizing Model. III. Planets from sub-Earths to Brown Dwarfs: structure and metallicity preferences
• Positive metallicity correlation for coreless giant planets
• Evolution of fractality and rotation in embedded star clusters
• Metal loading of giant gas planets
• Clumpy high-z galaxies as a testbed for feedback-regulated galaxy formation
• Ejection of gaseous clumps from gravitationally unstable protostellar disks
• Evolution of Coated Grains in Spiral Shocks of Self-Gravitating Protoplanetary Disks
• Gravitoviscous protoplanetary disks with a dust component. II. Spatial distribution and growth of dust in a clumpy disk
• The Effect of Irradiation on the Jeans Mass in Fragmenting Self-Gravitating Protostellar Discs
• Gravitoviscous protoplanetary disks with a dust component. III. Evolution of gas, dust, and pebbles
• The influence of infall on the properties of protoplanetary discs
• Destruction of massive fragments in protostellar disks and crystalline silicate production
• The Formation and Dynamics of Super-Earth Planets
• Rotation of the Solar System planets and the origin of the Moon in the context of the tidal downsizing hypothesis
• A scaled-up planetary system around a supernova progenitor
• The Effect of Protoplanetary Disk Cooling Times on the Formation of Gas Giant Planets by Gravitational Instability
• Giant planets and brown dwarfs on wide orbits: a code comparison project
• Super-Earths: A New Class of Planetary Bodies
• Modelling the formation of the circumnuclear ring in the Galactic centre
• Changes in the metallicity of gas giant planets due to pebble accretion
• Accretion bursts in high-mass protostars: a new testbed for models of episodic accretion
• Star Formation and Dynamics in the Galactic Centre
• The Properties of Prestellar Discs in Isolated and Multiple Prestellar Systems
• Planet Migration in Self-Gravitating Discs: Survival of Planets
• Molecular Mapping of DR Tau's Protoplanetary Disk, Envelope, Outflow, and Large-Scale Spiral Arm
• From hydrodynamics to N-body simulations of star clusters: mergers and rotation
• The effect of external environment on the evolution of protostellar disks
• Binary companions triggering fragmentation in self-gravitating discs
• Thermal evolution of protoplanetary disks: from $\beta$-cooling to decoupled gas and dust temperatures
• Tidal Downsizing Model. IV. Destructive feedback in planets
• The diverse lives of massive protoplanets in self-gravitating discs
• The evolution of self-gravitating accretion discs
• Perturbations induced by a molecular cloud on the young stellar disc in the Galactic Centre
• Constraining the initial planetary population in the gravitational instability model
• Improving the thin-disk models of circumstellar disk evolution. The 2+1-dimensional model
• TW Hya: an old protoplanetary disc revived by its planet
• Forming circumnuclear disks and rings in galactic nuclei: a competition between supermassive black hole and nuclear star cluster
• Extreme evaporation of planets in hot thermally unstable protoplanetary discs: the case of FU Ori
• Episodic accretion and mergers during growth of massive protostars
• The Concentration and Growth of Solids in Fragmenting Circumstellar Disks
• Are SMBHs shrouded by "super-Oort" clouds of comets and asteroids?
• Dust Growth and Dynamics in Protoplanetary Nebulae: Implications for Opacity, Thermal Profile and Gravitational Instability
• Direct detection of precursors of gas giants formed by gravitational instability with the Atacama Large Millimetre/sub-millimetre Array
• Hierarchical generative models for star clusters from hydro-dynamical simulations
• Characterizing fragmentation and sub-Jovian clump properties in magnetized young protoplanetary disks
• Planet formation in post-common-envelope binaries
• Architecture of planetary systems predicted from protoplanetary disks observed with ALMA I: mass of the possible planets embedded in the dust gap
• The link between infall location, early disc size, and the fraction of self-gravitationally fragmenting discs
• On the origin of wide-orbit ALMA planets: giant protoplanets disrupted by their cores
• Constraints on planet formation via gravitational instability across cosmic time
• Flux-Limited Diffusion Approximation Models of Giant Planet Formation by Disk Instability. II. Quadrupled Spatial Resolution
• The gas disk: Evolution and chemistry
• DIPSY: A new Disc Instability Population SYnthesis, II. The Populations of Companions Formed Through Disc Instability
• A new view on planet formation
• Very Large Telescope observations of Gomez's Hamburger: Insights into a young protoplanet candidate
• Formation of inner planets in the presence of a Cold Jupiter: orbital evolution and relative velocities of planetesimals
• Hydrogen-loosing planets in transition discs around young protostars
• Searching for wide-orbit gravitational instability protoplanets with ALMA in the dust continuum
• Planet formation: key mechanisms and global models
• Restoration of the Parameters of a Gas-Dust Disk Based on Its Synthetic Images
• The paradox of youth for ALMA planet candidates
• Pebble accretion in self-gravitating protostellar discs
• The Outcome of Collisions between Gaseous Clumps formed by Disk Instability
• Modeling Circumstellar Disc Fragmentation and Episodic Protostellar Accretion with Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics in Cell
• Brown dwarfs forming in discs: where to look for them?
• DIPSY: A new Disc Instability Population SYnthesis, I. Modeling, evolution of individual systems, and tests
• Planetesimal Dynamics in the Presence of a Giant Planet II: Dependence on Planet Mass and Eccentricity
• Planets, debris and their host metallicity correlations
• Orbital features of distant trans-Neptunian objects induced by giant gaseous clumps
• The Migrating Embryo Model for Disk Evolution
• The formation of planets by disc fragmentation
• Dust growth and planet formation by disc fragmentation
• A universal brown dwarf desert formed between planets and stars