Towards a population synthesis model of self-gravitating disc fragmentation and tidal downsizing II: The effect of fragment-fragment interactions

Abstract

It is likely that most protostellar systems undergo a brief phase where the protostellar disc is self-gravitating. If these discs are prone to fragmentation, then they are able to rapidly form objects that are initially of several Jupiter masses and larger. The fate of these disc fragments (and the fate of planetary bodies formed afterwards via core accretion) depends sensitively not only on the fragment's interaction with the disc, but with its neighbouring fragments. We return to and revise our population synthesis model of self-gravitating disc fragmentation and tidal downsizing. Amongst other improvements, the model now directly incorporates fragment-fragment interactions while the disc is still present. We find that fragment-fragment scattering dominates the orbital evolution, even when we enforce rapid migration and inefficient gap formation. Compared to our previous model, we see a small increase in the number of terrestrial-type objects being formed, although their survival under tidal evolution is at best unclear. We also see evidence for disrupted fragments with evolved grain populations - this is circumstantial evidence for the formation of planetesimal belts, a phenomenon not seen in runs where fragment-fragment interactions are ignored. In spite of intense dynamical evolution, our population is dominated by massive giant planets and brown dwarfs at large semimajor axis, which direct imaging surveys should, but only rarely, detect. Finally, disc fragmentation is shown to be an efficient manufacturer of free floating planetary mass objects, and the typical multiplicity of systems formed via gravitational instability will be low.

arXiv comment14 pages, 17 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS

References in corpus (84)

• Direct Imaging of Multiple Planets Orbiting the Star HR 8799
• Nonlinear Outcome of Gravitational Instability in Cooling, Gaseous Disks
• Using FU Orionis Outbursts to Constrain Self-Regulated Protostellar Disk Models
• On the width and shape of gaps in protoplanetary disks
• Gravitational Instabilities in Circumstellar Disks
• Can giant planets form by direct gravitational instability?
• Breaking the Chains: Hot Super-Earth systems from migration and disruption of compact resonant chains
• The properties of brown dwarfs and low-mass hydrogen-burning stars formed by disc fragmentation
• Investigating fragmentation conditions in self-gravitating accretion discs
• Protoplanetary disc evolution and dispersal: the implications of X-ray photoevaportion
• The Two Modes of Gas Giant Planet Formation
• Clumps in the Outer Disk by Disk Instability: Why They are Initially Gas Giants and the Legacy of Disruption
• A Triple Protostar System Formed via Fragmentation of a Gravitationally Unstable Disk
• Planets opening dust gaps in gas disks
• Accelerated planetesimal growth in self-gravitating protoplanetary discs
• Characterising the Gravitational Instability in Cooling Accretion Discs
• Planets Around Low-Mass Stars (PALMS). IV. The Outer Architecture of M Dwarf Planetary Systems
• Theoretical models of planetary system formation: mass vs semi-major axis
• Formation of planets by tidal downsizing of giant planet embryos
• Rapid inward migration of planets formed by gravitational instability
• The Thermal Regulation of Gravitational Instabilities in Protoplanetary Disks II. Extended Simulations with Varied Cooling Rates
• On the convergence of the critical cooling timescale for the fragmentation of self-gravitating discs
• Non-convergence of the critical cooling timescale for fragmentation of self-gravitating discs
• A Keplerian-like disk around the forming O-type star AFGL 4176
• Grain sedimentation inside giant planet embryos
• Towards a Population Synthesis Model of Objects formed by Self-Gravitating Disc Fragmentation and Tidal Downsizing
• The VLT/NaCo large program to probe the occurrence of exoplanets and brown dwarfs at wide orbits. IV. Gravitational instability rarely forms wide, giant planets
• Planet-Planet Scattering Alone Cannot Explain the Free-Floating Planet Population
• Time-dependent models of the structure and evolution of self-gravitating protoplanetary discs
• G11.92-0.61 MM1: A Keplerian disc around a massive young proto-O star
• Period ratios in multi-planetary systems discovered by Kepler are consistent with planet migration
• The importance of episodic accretion for low-mass star formation
• A Sub-arcsecond Survey Toward Class 0 Protostars in Perseus: Searching for Signatures of Protostellar Disks
• Observational evidence for two distinct giant planet populations
• Numerical convergence in self-gravitating shearing sheet simulations and the stochastic nature of disc fragmentation
• On the formation of terrestrial planets in hot-Jupiter systems
• An opening criterion for dust gaps in protoplanetary discs
• The CHARA Array Angular Diameter of HR 8799 Favors Planetary Masses for Its Imaged Companions
• On the gap-opening criterion of migrating planets in protoplanetary disks
• On the origin of the spiral morphology in the Elias 2-27 circumstellar disc
• Dust trapping by spiral arms in gravitationally unstable protostellar discs
• Stability of self-gravitating discs under irradiation
• Multiple mean motion resonances in the HR 8799 planetary system
• The Jeans Mass as a Fundamental Measure of Self-Gravitating Disc Fragmentation and Initial Fragment Mass
• Convergence of the critical cooling rate for protoplanetary disk fragmentation achieved; the key role of numerical dissipation of angular momentum
• The Nature of Angular Momentum Transport in Radiative Self-Gravitating Protostellar Discs
• Fragment Production and Survival in Irradiated Disks: A Comprehensive Cooling Criterion
• Resolution requirements for Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics simulations of self-gravitating accretion discs
• Formation of terrestrial planet cores inside giant planet embryos
• Two phase, inward-then-outward migration of Jupiter and Saturn in the gaseous Solar Nebula
• Collapse of a molecular cloud core to stellar densities: the radiative impact of stellar core formation on the circumstellar disc
• Dawes Review. The tidal downsizing hypothesis of planet formation
• Circumplanetary disks around young giant planets: a comparison between core-accretion and disk instability
• Collision velocity of dust grains in self-gravitating protoplanetary discs
• 3D Radiative Hydrodynamics for Disk Stability Simulations: A Proposed Testing Standard and New Results
• The chemistry of protoplanetary fragments formed via gravitational instabilities
• Chemistry in a gravitationally unstable protoplanetary disc
• Disc fragmentation rarely forms planetary-mass objects
• Identifying and Analysing Protostellar Disc Fragments in Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics Simulations
• Convergence of simulations of self-gravitating accretion discs II: Sensitivity to the implementation of radiative cooling and artificial viscosity
• Limits on the location of planetesimal formation in self-gravitating protostellar discs
• The migration of gas giant planets in gravitationally unstable discs
• Fragmenting protostellar disks: properties and observational signatures
• The fragmentation of protostellar discs: the Hill criterion for spiral arms
• The Dynamical Fate of Self-Gravitating Disc Fragments After Tidal Downsizing
• Burst and Persistent Emission Properties during the Recent Active Episode of the Anomalous X-ray Pulsar 1E 1841-045
• Gravitational instabilities in a protosolar-like disc I: dynamics and chemistry
• An alternative origin for debris rings of planetesimals
• Core-assisted gas capture instability: a new mode of giant planet formation by gravitationally unstable discs
• Convergence of SPH simulations of self-gravitating accretion discs: Sensitivity to the implementation of radiative cooling
• Triggered fragmentation in self-gravitating discs: forming fragments at small radii
• Positive metallicity correlation for coreless giant planets
• First millimeter detection of the disk around a young, isolated, planetary-mass object
• The Effect of Irradiation on the Jeans Mass in Fragmenting Self-Gravitating Protostellar Discs
• Quantification of stochastic fragmentation of self-gravitating discs
• Self-gravitating disc candidates around massive young stars
• Magnetic field and early evolution of circumstellar disks
• The dynamical evolution of low-mass hydrogen-burning stars, brown dwarfs and planetary-mass objects formed through disc fragmentation
• Tidal Downsizing Model. IV. Destructive feedback in planets
• The evolution of self-gravitating accretion discs
• Fragmentation of protoplanetary disks around M-dwarfs
• A Self-Gravitating Disc Around L1527 IRS?
• A Lower Angular Momentum Limit for Self-Gravitating Protostellar Disc Fragmentation
• A desert of gas giant planets beyond tens of au

Cited by in corpus (61)

• The SPHERE infrared survey for exoplanets (SHINE). III. The demographics of young giant exoplanets below 300 au with SPHERE
• Planetary population synthesis
• Heavy metal rules. I. Exoplanet incidence and metallicity
• Spiral Arms and a Massive Dust Disk with non-Keplerian Kinematics: Possible Evidence for Gravitational Instability in the Disk of Elias 2-27
• On the Mass Function, Multiplicity, and Origins of Wide-Orbit Giant Planets
• Calibration of quasi-static aberrations in exoplanet direct-imaging instruments with a Zernike phase-mask sensor. III. On-sky validation in VLT/SPHERE
• Planet formation around M dwarfs via disc instability: Fragmentation conditions and protoplanet properties
• In-situ extreme mass ratio inspirals via sub-parsec formation and migration of stars in thin, gravitationally unstable AGN discs
• Predicting the kinematic evidence of gravitational instability
• Discovery of a directly imaged planet to the young solar analog YSES 2
• Are Elias 2-27's spiral arms driven by self-gravity, or by a companion? A comparative spiral morphology study
• Massive discs around low-mass stars
• Planetary Population Synthesis and the Emergence of Four Classes of Planetary System Architectures
• The temporal requirements of directly observing self-gravitating spiral waves in protoplanetary discs with ALMA
• On the diversity in mass and orbital radius of giant planets formed via disk instability
• The Maximum Mass Solar Nebula and the early formation of planets
• The search for disks or planetary objects around directly imaged companions: A candidate around DH Tau B
• A scaled-up planetary system around a supernova progenitor
• Giant planets and brown dwarfs on wide orbits: a code comparison project
• Observing substructure in circumstellar discs around massive young stellar objects
• Isochronal age-mass discrepancy of young stars: SCExAO/CHARIS integral field spectroscopy of the HIP 79124 triple system
• An eccentric Brown Dwarf eclipsing an M dwarf
• Planet Migration in Self-Gravitating Discs: Survival of Planets
• Binary companions triggering fragmentation in self-gravitating discs
• Fragmentation favoured in discs around higher mass stars
• Tidal migration of hot Jupiters: introducing the impact of gravity wave dissipation
• ESPRESSO Mass determination of TOI-263b: An extreme inhabitant of the brown dwarf desert
• The impact of pre-main sequence stellar evolution on midplane snowline locations and C/O in planet forming discs
• Constraining the initial planetary population in the gravitational instability model
• AB Aurigae: Possible evidence of planet formation through the gravitational instability
• On the suppression of giant planet formation around low-mass stars in clustered environments
• The imprint of X-ray photoevaporation of planet-forming discs on the orbital distribution of giant planets -- II. Theoretical predictions
• The Scorpion Planet Survey: Wide-Orbit Giant Planets Around Young A-type Stars
• The fate of formamide in a fragmenting protoplanetary disc
• Direct Imaging Discovery of a Young Brown Dwarf Companion to an A2V Star
• VIBES: VIsual Binary Exoplanet survey with SPHERE Upper limits on wide S-planet and S-BD frequencies, triple system discovery, and astrometric confirmation of 20 stellar binaries and three triple systems
• The link between infall location, early disc size, and the fraction of self-gravitationally fragmenting discs
• Greening of the Brown Dwarf Desert. EPIC 212036875 b -- a 51 M${}_{\mathrm{J}}$ object in a 5 day orbit around an F7 V star
• A transiting giant planet in orbit around a 0.2-solar-mass host star
• The Effect of the Approach to Gas Disk Gravitational Instability on the Rapid Formation of Gas Giant Planets
• An imaged 15Mjup companion within a hierarchical quadruple system
• First Detection of A Linear Structure in the Midplane of the Young HH 211 Protostellar Disk: A Spiral Arm?
• Giant planets population around B stars from the first part of the BEAST survey
• DIPSY: A new Disc Instability Population SYnthesis, II. The Populations of Companions Formed Through Disc Instability
• Population synthesis of exoplanets accounting for orbital variations due to stellar evolution
• Orbital stability of two circumbinary planets around misaligned eccentric binaries
• Searching for wide-orbit gravitational instability protoplanets with ALMA in the dust continuum
• Pebble accretion in self-gravitating protostellar discs
• Orbital Modeling of HII 1348B: An Eccentric Young Substellar Companion in the Pleiades
• WIde Separation Planets In Time (WISPIT): Two directly imaged exoplanets around the Sun-like stellar binary WISPIT 1
• DIPSY: A new Disc Instability Population SYnthesis, I. Modeling, evolution of individual systems, and tests
• The Outcome of Collisions between Gaseous Clumps formed by Disk Instability
• Planet Formation
• Characterization of low-mass companions to $\text{Kepler}$ objects of interest observed with APOGEE-N
• Constraining protoplanetary disc mass using the GI wiggle
• A distant brown dwarf coplanar to a warm Jupiter and a hot super-Earth
• Direct Images of CO2 Absorption in the Atmosphere of a Super-Jupiter: Enhanced Metallicity Suggestive of Formation in a Disk
• A universal brown dwarf desert formed between planets and stars
• Gravitational instability in planet-forming discs
• Dynamical orbital evolution scenarios of the wide-orbit eccentric planet HR 5183b
• A large sub-Neptune transiting the thick-disk M4V TOI-2406