Dynamics of Hot Bulk QCD Matter: from the Quark-Gluon Plasma to Hadronic Freeze-Out

Abstract

We introduce a combined macroscopic/microscopic transport approach employing relativistic hydrodynamics for the early, dense, deconfined stage of the reaction and a microscopic non-equilibrium model for the later hadronic stage where the equilibrium assumptions are not valid anymore. Within this approach we study the dynamics of hot, bulk QCD matter, which is expected to be created in ultra-relativistic heavy ion collisions at the SPS, the RHIC and the LHC. Our approach is capable of self-consistently calculating the freeze-out of the hadronic system, while accounting for the collective flow on the hadronization hypersurface generated by the QGP expansion. In particular, we perform a detailed analysis of the reaction dynamics, hadronic freeze-out, and transverse flow.

55 pages, 15 figures

References in corpus (78)

• Relativistic Hadron-Hadron Collisions in the Ultra-Relativistic Quantum Molecular Dynamics Model (UrQMD)
• Event-by-Event Fluctuations in Heavy Ion Collisions and the QCD Critical Point
• Formation of superdense hadronic matter in high energy heavy-ion collisions
• Thermal and Hadrochemical Equilibration in Nucleus-Nucleus Collisions at the SPS
• Unified Description of Freeze-Out Parameters in Relativistic Heavy Ion Collisions
• The Search for the Quark-Gluon Plasma
• Scaling of transverse energies and multiplicities with atomic number and energy in ultrarelativistic nuclear collisions
• Baryon Stopping and Charged Particle Distributions in Central Pb+Pb Collisions at 158 GeV per Nucleon
• Relativistic Hydrodynamics for Heavy--Ion Collisions -- I. General Aspects and Expansion into Vacuum
• Signatures of Quark-Gluon-Plasma formation in high energy heavy-ion collisions: A critical review
• Parton Equilibration in Relativistic Heavy Ion Collisions
• The Time-Delay Signature of Quark-Gluon-Plasma Formation in Relativistic Nuclear Collisions
• Hydrodynamics near the QCD Phase Transition: Looking for the Longest-Lived Fireball
• Relativistic Transport Approach for Nucleus-Nucleus Collisions from SIS to SPS Energies
• The Growth of Bubbles in Cosmological Phase Transitions
• Bose-Einstein Correlations for Three-Dimensionally Expanding, Cylindrically Symmetric, Finite Systems
• Hydrodynamical Description of 200 A GeV/c S+Au Collisions: Hadron and Electromagnetic Spectra
• Evidence of early multi-strange hadron freeze-out in high energy nuclear collisions
• Primordial Black Hole Formation during First-Order Phase Transitions
• Medium Effects in Kaon and Antikaon Production in Nuclear Collisions at Subthreshold Beam Energies
• Equation of State, Radial Flow and Freeze-out in High Energy Heavy Ion Collisions
• The parton to hadron phase transition observed in Pb+Pb collisions at 158 GeV per nucleon
• Amplification of Cosmological Inhomogeneities by the QCD Transition
• Hadronic Expansion Dynamics in Central Pb+Pb Collisions at 158 GeV per Nucleon
• Evidence for a high entropy phase in nuclear collisions
• Equation of State, Spectra and Composition of Hot and Dense Infinite Hadronic Matter in a Microscopic Transport Model
• Physics of Thermal QCD
• Non-Equilibrium Phase Transition in Rapidly Expanding Matter
• Primordial hadrosynthesis in the Little Bang
• Thermal and Chemical Equilibration in Relativistic Heavy Ion Collisions
• Shock-like Freeze-out in Relativistic Hydrodynamics
• Hadronic freeze-out following a first order hadronization phase transition in ultrarelativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Physics and Signatures of the Quark - Gluon Plasma
• The Maximum Lifetime of the Quark-Gluon Plasma
• Extracting Source Parameters from Gaussian Fits to Two-Particle Correlations
• Expanding Quark-Gluon Plasmas: Transverse Flow, Chemical Equilibration and Electromagnetic Radiation
• Temperatures and Non-ideal Expansion in Ultrarelativistic Nucleus-Nucleus Collisions
• VNI-3.1: MC-simulation program to study high-energy particle collisions in QCD by space-time evolution of parton-cascades and parton-hadron conversion
• Freeze out in hydrodynamical models
• Space-time Structure of Initial Parton Production in Ultrarelativistic Heavy Ion Collisions
• Pion and thermal photon spectra as a possible signal for a phase transition
• Transverse Energy Evolution as a Test of Parton Cascade Models
• Finite Temperature Transitions in Lattice QCD with Wilson Quarks --- Chiral Transitions and the Influence of the Strange Quark ---
• Large Scale Inhomogeneities from the QCD Phase Transition
• The Effect of Shadowing on Initial Conditions, Transverse Energy and Hard Probes in Ultrarelativistic Heavy Ion Collisions
• Direct Emission of multiple strange baryons in ultrarelativistic heavy-ion collisions from the phase boundary
• Hadronization with a confining equation of state
• Collective dynamics in highly relativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Chemical equilibration of strangeness
• Peaks above the Harrison-Zel'dovich spectrum due to the Quark-Gluon to Hadron Transition
• Xi and Xi-bar Production in 158 GeV/Nucleon Pb+Pb Collisions
• Hadron production in relativistic nuclear collisions: thermal hadron source or hadronizing quark-gluon plasma?
• Non-equilibrium initial conditions from pQCD for RHIC and LHC
• Non-ideal Particle Distributions from Kinetic Freeze Out Models
• Hydrodynamical analysis of single inclusive spectra and Bose-Einstein correlations for $Pb+Pb$ at 160 AGeV
• Thermal Particle and Photon Production in Pb+Pb Collisions with Transverse Flow
• First-order chiral phase transition may naturally lead to the ``quenched'' initial condition and strong soft-pion fields
• Hydrodynamical analysis of symmetric nucleus-nucleus collisions at CERN/SPS energies
• Particle Freeze-out and Discontinuities in Relativistic Hydrodynamics
• Pre-equilibrium evolution of quark-gluon plasma
• alpha_s dependence in the equilibration in relativistic heavy ion collisions
• Relativistic Hydrodynamics for Heavy--Ion Collisions: Freeze--Out and Particle Spectra
• Chemical Nonequilibrium in High Energy Nuclear Collisions
• Analytic solution for relativistic transverse flow at the softest point
• Hadronization of a Quark-Gluon Plasma in the Chromodielectric Model
• Thermal Equilibration in an Expanding Parton Plasma
• Baryon Junction Stopping at the SPS and RHIC via HIJING/B
• Extracting the Equation of State of Nuclear Matter through Hydrodynamical Analysis
• Analysis of reaction dynamics at RHIC in a combined parton/hadron transport approach
• Thermal photons as a measure for the rapidity dependence of the temperature
• The Origin of Transverse Flow at the SPS
• Calculation of the expansion rate of the three-volume measure in high-energy heavy-ion collisions
• Confronting particle emission scenarios with strangeness data
• Hadron and hadron-cluster production in a hydrodynamical model including particle evaporation
• Chiral model for dense, hot and strange hadronic matter
• Finite Temperature Phase Diagramm of QCD with improved Wilson fermions
• Probing the equation of state in the AGS energy range with 3-d hydrodynamics
• Finite Temperature Phase Diagram of QCD with improved Wilson Fermions

Cited by in corpus (202)

• Experimental and Theoretical Challenges in the Search for the Quark Gluon Plasma: The STAR Collaboration's Critical Assessment of the Evidence from RHIC Collisions
• Collective flow and viscosity in relativistic heavy-ion collisions
• New Forms of QCD Matter Discovered at RHIC
• Viscosity Information from Relativistic Nuclear Collisions: How Perfect is the Fluid Observed at RHIC?
• Systematic Measurements of Identified Particle Spectra in pp, d+Au and Au+Au Collisions from STAR
• Conformal Relativistic Viscous Hydrodynamics: Applications to RHIC results at sqrt(s_NN) = 200 GeV
• Flow at the SPS and RHIC as a Quark Gluon Plasma Signature
• Hydrodynamic Modeling of Heavy-Ion Collisions
• Femtoscopy in Relativistic Heavy Ion Collisions: Two Decades of Progress
• New Developments in Relativistic Viscous Hydrodynamics
• Applying Bayesian parameter estimation to relativistic heavy-ion collisions: simultaneous characterization of the initial state and quark-gluon plasma medium
• Collective flow and two-pion correlations from a relativistic hydrodynamic model with early chemical freeze out
• Hadronic dissipative effects on elliptic flow in ultrarelativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Fully integrated transport approach to heavy ion reactions with an intermediate hydrodynamic stage
• The importance of the bulk viscosity of QCD in ultrarelativistic heavy-ion collisions
• New theories of relativistic hydrodynamics in the LHC era
• Properties of hot and dense matter from relativistic heavy ion collisions
• Event-by-event fluctuations in perturbative QCD + saturation + hydro model: pinning down QCD matter shear viscosity in ultrarelativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Event-by-Event Simulation of the Three-Dimensional Hydrodynamic Evolution from Flux Tube Initial Conditions in Ultrarelativistic Heavy Ion Collisions
• Hydrodynamic Models for Heavy Ion Collisions
• Multi-system Bayesian constraints on the transport coefficients of QCD matter
• Space-time evolution of bulk QCD matter
• Perfect Fluidity of the Quark Gluon Plasma Core as Seen through its Dissipative Hadronic Corona
• Second Order Dissipative Fluid Dynamics for Ultra-Relativistic Nuclear Collisions
• Transverse flow and hadro-chemistry in Au+Au collisions at \sqrt{s_{NN}}=200 GeV
• Is early thermalization achieved only near midrapidity at RHIC ?
• Bulk and shear viscosities of matter created in relativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Shear-Viscosity to Entropy Density Ratio of a Relativistic Hadron Gas
• Particlization in hybrid models
• Elliptic flow of identified hadrons in Pb-Pb collisions at $\sqrt{s_{\mathrm{NN}}}$ = 2.76 TeV
• Multi-strange baryon elliptic flow in Au+Au collisions at sqrt(s_NN)= 200 GeV
• Viscous QCD matter in a hybrid hydrodynamic+Boltzmann approach
• Mid-rapidity $\Lambda$ and $\bar{\Lambda }$ Production in Au+Au Collisions at $\sqrt{s_{{}_{NN}}}=130$ GeV
• Initial State Fluctuations and Final State Correlations in Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collisions
• Hadron Formation in Relativistic Nuclear Collisions and the QCD Phase Diagram
• The ALICE experiment: a journey through QCD
• Particle spectra in Pb-Pb collisions at 2.76 TeV
• Momentum spectra, anisotropic flow, and ideal fluids
• Phase transitions in the early and the present Universe
• Viscous Hydrodynamic Predictions for Nuclear Collisions at the LHC
• Is the analysis of flow at the CERN SPS reliable?
• Strange baryon resonance production in $\sqrt{s_{NN}}=200$ GeV $p+p$ and $Au+Au$ collisions
• Relativistic viscous hydrodynamics for heavy-ion collisions with ECHO-QGP
• Integrated Dynamical Approach to Relativistic Heavy Ion Collisions
• Pion Interferometry at RHIC: Probing a thermalized Quark-Gluon-Plasma?
• Relativistic hydrodynamics in heavy-ion collisions: general aspects and recent developments
• New Solutions to Covariant Non-equilibrium Dynamics
• Eccentricity fluctuation effects on elliptic flow in relativistic heavy ion collisions
• Mass ordering of differential elliptic flow and its violation for phi mesons
• Non-thermal p/pi ratio at LHC as a consequence of hadronic final state interactions
• Effects of bulk viscosity and hadronic rescattering in heavy ion collisions at RHIC and LHC
• The Fate of the Initial State Fluctuations in Heavy Ion Collisions. II The Fluctuations and Sounds
• Bulk Viscosity and Cavitation in Boost-Invariant Hydrodynamic Expansion
• Quantifying properties of hot and dense QCD matter through systematic model-to-data comparison
• $\varphi$ and $\Omega$ production in relativistic heavy ion collisions in a dynamical quark coalescence model
• Particle ratios at RHIC: Effective hadron masses and chemical freeze-out
• Instability of Boost-invariant hydrodynamics with a QCD inspired bulk viscosity
• (3+1)-Dimensional Hydrodynamic Expansion with a Critical Point from Realistic Initial Conditions
• Causal Viscous Hydrodynamics for Central Heavy-Ion Collisions II: Meson Spectra and HBT Radii
• Centrality dependence of hadronization and chemical freeze-out conditions in heavy ion collisions at \sqrt s_{NN} = 2.76 TeV
• Jet Quenching and the p-bar >= pi- Anomaly at RHIC
• Transverse Activity of Kaons and the Deconfinement Phase Transition in Nucleus--Nucleus Collisions
• Hadronization conditions in relativistic nuclear collisions and the QCD pseudo-critical line
• Direct real photons in relativistic heavy ion collisions
• Early collective expansion: Relativistic hydrodynamics and the transport properties of QCD matter
• Evidence for Hydrodynamic Evolution in Proton-Proton Scattering at LHC Energies
• Charged and strange hadron elliptic flow in Cu+Cu collisions at $\sqrt{s_{NN}}$ = 62.4 and 200 GeV
• Effects of hadronic rescattering on multistrange hadrons in high-energy nuclear collisions
• Fluid Dynamics and Viscosity in Strongly Correlated Fluids
• From colored glass condensate to gluon plasma: equilibration in high energy heavy ion collisions
• Chemical freeze-out temperature in hydrodynamical description of Au+Au collisions at sqrt(s_NN) = 200 GeV
• The QCD phase diagram and Beam Energy Scan physics: a theory overview
• Size fluctuations of the initial source and the event-by-event transverse momentum fluctuations in relativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Hadronization and Hadronic Freeze-Out in Relativistic Nuclear Collisions
• Constraining the initial state granularity with bulk observables in Au+Au collisions at $\sqrt{s_{\mathrm{NN}}}=200$ GeV
• Effective String Rope Model for the initial stages of Ultra-Relativistic Heavy Ion Collisions
• Particle production in a hybrid approach for a beam energy scan of Au+Au/Pb+Pb collisions between $\sqrt{s_{\mathrm{NN}}}$ = 4.3 GeV and $\sqrt{s_{\mathrm{NN}}}$ = 200.0 GeV
• Elliptic flow of multi-strange particles: fragmentation, recombination and hydrodynamics
• Elliptic flow of thermal photons and formation time of quark gluon plasma at RHIC
• Influence of the hadronic phase on observables in ultrarelativistic heavy ion collisions
• Hydro-kinetic approach to relativistic heavy ion collisions
• Rapid hydrodynamic expansion in relativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Hydrodynamics at large baryon densities: Understanding proton vs. anti-proton v_2 and other puzzles
• High-Energy Collision of Quarks and Mesons in the Schwinger Model: From Tensor Networks to Circuit QED
• The quark-gluon plasma at RHIC
• Correlation femtoscopy
• Dynamical Freeze-out in 3-Fluid Hydrodynamics
• Ideal hydrodynamics and elliptic flow at SPS energies: Importance of the initial conditions
• Strange hadron production in heavy ion collisions from SPS to RHIC
• Eccentricity fluctuations in an integrated hybrid approach: Influence on elliptic flow
• Comparison of space-time evolutions of hot/dense matter in $\sqrt{s_{NN}}$=17 and 130 GeV relativistic heavy ion collisions based on a hydrodynamical model
• Ideal Hydrodynamics for Bulk and Multistrange Hadrons in $\sqrt{s_{NN}}$=200\,AGeV Au-Au Collisions
• Reconstruction of Hadronization Stage in Pb+Pb Collisions at 158A GeV/c
• Emission angle dependent pion interferometry at RHIC and beyond
• Hydrodynamic modeling of deconfinement phase transition in heavy-ion collisions at NICA-FAIR energies
• Hadronic signals of deconfinement at RHIC
• Omega, J/psi and psi' Production in Nuclear Collisions and Quark Gluon Plsama Hadronization
• A systematic comparison of jet quenching in different fluid-dynamical models
• Anisotropic flow in transport+hydrodynamics hybrid approaches
• Kaon Interferometry: A Sensitive Probe of the QCD Equation of State?
• Kaon and pion femtoscopy at the highest energies available at the BNL Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) in a hydrokinetic model
• Interplay between core and corona components in high-energy nuclear collisions
• Skewness of mean transverse momentum fluctuations in heavy-ion collisions
• Bayesian parameter estimation for relativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Strangeness Production in Nuclear Matter and Expansion Dynamics
• Longitudinal fluid dynamics for ultrarelativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Observation of $D_s^{\pm }/D^0$ enhancement in Au+Au collisions at $\sqrt{s_{{}_{\mathrm{NN}}}}$ = 200 GeV
• Direct photon production from hadronic sources in high-energy heavy-ion collisions
• $<m_T>$ excitation function: Freeze-out and equation of state dependence
• Identified Particle Spectra and Anisotropic Flow in an Event-by-Event Hybrid Approach in Pb+Pb collisions at $\sqrt{s_{\mathrm{NN}}}=2.76$ TeV
• Relativistic Kinetic Equations for Finite Domains and Freeze-out Problem
• The Effective Pressure of a Saturated Gluon Plasma
• Viscous evolution of the rapidity distribution of matter created in relativistic heavy-ion collisions
• MUSIC with the UrQMD Afterburner
• Surprisingly large uncertainties in temperature extraction from thermal fits to hadron yield data at LHC
• Anisotropic flow at RHIC: How unique is the number-of-constituent-quark scaling?
• 3-D hydro + cascade model at RHIC
• Rapidity-dependent spectra from a single-freeze-out model of relativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Omega, J/psi and psi' Transverse Mass Spectra at RHIC
• Efficient emulation of relativistic heavy ion collisions with transfer learning
• Transverse energy from minijets in ultrarelativistic nuclear collisions: a next-to-leading order analysis
• The QGP Discovered at RHIC
• Jozso's Legacy: Chemical and Kinetic Freeze-out in Heavy-Ion Collisions
• Estimating Elliptic Flow Coefficient in Heavy Ion Collisions using Deep Learning
• Evidence for chemical equilibration at RHIC
• Derivation of relativistic hydrodynamic equations consistent with relativistic Boltzmann equation by renormalization-group method
• Inhomogeneous freeze-out in relativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Effect of chemical freeze out on identified particle spectra at 200AGeV Au-Au Collisions at RHIC using SPheRIO
• Exactly Solvable Models: The Road Towards a Rigorous Treatment of Phase Transitions in Finite Systems
• Relativistic Causal Hydrodynamics Derived from Boltzmann Equation: a novel reduction theoretical approach
• Constraining baryon annihilation in the hadronic phase of heavy-ion collisions via event-by-event fluctuations
• Phenomenology of the little bang
• Transverse Momentum Spectra of $J/\psi$ and ${\psi }^{\prime }$ Mesons from Quark Gluon Plasma Hadronization in Nuclear Collisions
• Flow in heavy-ion collisions - Theory Perspective
• Multiplicity dependence of strangeness and hadronic resonance production in pp and p-Pb collisions with ALICE at the LHC
• Deep learning predicted elliptic flow of identified particles in heavy-ion collisions at the RHIC and LHC energies
• Derivation of second-order relativistic hydrodynamics for reactive multi-component systems
• Collective Flow of QCD Matter: a Historical Introduction
• Different Realizations of Cooper-Frye Sampling with Conservation Laws
• Yield ratios of identified hadrons in p+p, p+Pb, Pb+Pb collisions at the Large Hadron Collider
• Strangeness Production in Microscopic Transport Models
• Evolution of Charge Fluctuations and Correlations in the Hydrodynamic Stage of Heavy Ion Collisions
• Boundary Conditions of the Hydro-Cascade Model and Relativistic Kinetic Equations for Finite Domains
• Elliptic Flow Suppression due to Hadron Mass Spectrum
• Hadron Spectra and QGP Hadronization in Au+Au Collisions at RHIC
• Dissipative Relativistic Fluid Dynamics for Nuclear Collisions
• ${\Xi }^0(1530)$ Production in Heavy-Ion Collisions \linebreak and its Implications for $\Delta t_{therm-chem}$
• 1+1 Dimensional Hydrodynamics for High-energy Heavy-ion Collisions
• Centrality dependence of proton and light nuclei yields as a consequence of baryon annihilation in the hadronic phase
• Evaluating Results from the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider with Perturbative QCD and Hydrodynamics
• Hydrodynamic Description of Heavy Ion Collisions
• A Microscopic Picture of Strangeness Production at the SPS
• Hydrodynamic afterburner for the CGC at RHIC
• (Strange) Meson Interferometry at RHIC
• Equation of State and Collective Dynamics
• Elliptic flow and $R_{AA}$ of D mesons at FAIR comparing the UrQMD hybrid model and the coarse-graining approach
• Particle Correlations at RHIC - Scrutiny of a Puzzle
• Evolution of antibaryon abundances in the early Universe and in heavy-ion collisions
• Quasi-Particle Degrees of Freedom versus the Perfect Fluid as Descriptors of the Quark-Gluon Plasma
• Different production sources of light nuclei in relativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Thermodynamic Signatures and Phase Transitions in High-Energy Au-Au Collisions
• Isospin Fluctuations from a Thermally Equilibrated Hadron Gas
• Sudden freeze-out vs continuous emission: duality in hydro-kinetic approach to A+A collisions
• Initial conditions of bulk matter in ultrarelativistic nuclear collisions
• Averaged transverse momentum correlations of hadrons in relativistic heavy-ion collisions
• Chiral Hadronic Mean Field Model including Quark Degrees of Freedom
• Equation of state of strongly interacting matter: spectra for thermal particles and intensity correlation of thermal photons
• Strangeness in Quark Matter 2013: Opening Talk
• Kinetic description of particle emission from expanding source
• Extracting strange quark freeze-out information in Pb+Pb collisions at $\sqrt{s_{NN}}$=2.76 TeV from $\varphi$ and $\Omega$ production
• Hydrodynamic analysis of heavy ion collisions at RHIC
• Constituent Quark Scaling of Strangeness Enhancement in Heavy-Ion Collisions
• Nonequilibrium effects in hadronic fireball expansion
• Two freeze-out model for the hadrons produced in the Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collisions
• Hydrodynamic modeling of deconfinement phase transition in nuclear collisions
• Violation of mass ordering for multi-strange hadrons at RHIC and LHC
• A transport calculation with an embedded (3+1)d hydrodynamic evolution: Elliptic flow as a function of transverse momentum at SPS energies
• Elliptic flow from final state interactions in the distorted-wave emission-function model
• Investigating the QCD phase diagram with hadron multiplicities at NICA
• Determination of the $\varphi$-meson production process and its absorption cross section via directed flow
• The Rayleigh Bubble in Quark Matter under a Strong Magnetic Field
• SQM 2006: Theory Summary and Perspectives
• Relativistic Heavy Ion Collisions: Viscous Hydrodynamic Simulations and Final State Interactions
• Testing of coalescence mechanism in high energy heavy ion collisions using two-particle correlations with identified particle trigger
• A Chiral Mean-Field Equation-of-State in UrQMD: Effects on the Heavy Ion Compression Stage
• Excited hadrons as a signal for quark-gluon plasma formation
• Comparing effective temperatures in standard and Tsallis distributions from transverse momentum spectra in small collision systems
• Formation and Collapse of False Vacuum Bubbles in Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collisions
• The time evolution of light nuclei cumulants and ratios with a first-order phase transition in the UrQMD transport model
• Dynamic Magnetic Response of Quark-Gluon Plasma to Electromagnetic Fields
• Far-from-equilibrium hydrodynamic simulations of ultrarelativistic nuclear collisions
• Dynamical formation of center domains in quark-gluon plasma
• The deconfined phase near Tc and its decay into hadrons
• Equation of State and Phase Transitions in the Nuclear and Hadronic Systems
• Early dissipation and viscosity
• Identified charged hadron production in Au+Au collisions at $\sqrt{s_{\mathrm{NN}}}$ = 54.4 GeV with the STAR detector
• Longitudinal Dynamics of Large and Small Systems from a 3D Bayesian Calibration of RHIC Top-energy Collision Data
• Cooling Effect of the Richtmyer-Meshkov Instability
• Effects of Intense Magnetic Fields, High Temperature and Density on QCD-Related Phenomena
• Collective long-range particle correlations in proton-proton and proton-nucleus collisions at the LHC with the CMS detector
• Phase transitions in high energy heavy ion collisions within fluid dynamics
• Quantifying the Quark Gluon Plasma