Secure Quantum Key Distribution

Abstract

Secure communication plays a crucial role in the Internet Age. Quantum mechanics may revolutionise cryptography as we know it today. In this Review Article, we introduce the motivation and the current state of the art of research in quantum cryptography. In particular, we discuss the present security model together with its assumptions, strengths and weaknesses. After a brief introduction to recent experimental progress and challenges, we survey the latest developments in quantum hacking and counter-measures against it.

13 pages, 5 figures

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• Quantum Cryptographic Network based on Quantum Memories
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• Quantum key distribution for 10 Gb/s dense wavelength division multiplexing networks
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• Passive faraday mirror attack in practical two-way quantum key distribution system
• Practical fast gate rate InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche photodiodes
• Maintenance-free Operation of WDM Quantum Key Distribution System through a Field Fiber over 30 Days
• Reply to "Avoiding the Detector Blinding Attack on Quantum Cryptography"
• Megabits secure key rate quantum key distribution
• Implementation of two-party protocols in the noisy-storage model
• Ultrashort dead time of photon-counting InGaAs avalanche photodiodes
• Network-Centric Quantum Communications with Application to Critical Infrastructure Protection
• Comment on "Resilience of gated avalanche photodiodes against bright illumination attacks in quantum cryptography"
• Fully integrated InGaAs/InP single-photon detector module with gigahertz sine wave gating
• Countermeasure against tailored bright illumination attack for DPS-QKD
• Reply to "Comment on `Resilience of gated avalanche photodiodes against bright illumination attacks in quantum cryptography'"
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• Microwave photonics with superconducting quantum circuits
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• Photonic quantum information processing: a review
• Demonstrating sub-3 ps temporal resolution in a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector
• Provably Secure and Practical Quantum Key Distribution over 307 km of Optical Fibre
• Quantum repeaters: From quantum networks to the quantum internet
• High-Dimensional Intra-City Quantum Cryptography with Structured Photons
• Efficient long distance quantum communication
• Imaging with quantum states of light
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• Silicon Quantum Photonics
• High-Dimensional Quantum Key Distribution based on Multicore Fiber using Silicon Photonic Integrated Circuits
• Large scale quantum key distribution: challenges and solutions
• High-speed measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution with integrated silicon photonics
• Measurements in two bases are sufficient for certifying high-dimensional entanglement
• Towards real-world quantum networks: a review
• Self-referenced continuous-variable quantum key distribution protocol
• Robust multi-qubit quantum network node with integrated error detection
• Generating the local oscillator "locally" in continuous-variable quantum key distribution based on coherent detection
• Long-distance quantum key distribution secure against coherent attacks
• Quantum information processing with space-division multiplexing optical fibres
• Single photon emitters in hexagonal boron nitride: A review of progress
• Quantum dots for photonic quantum information technology
• Satellite-Based Continuous-Variable Quantum Communications: State-of-the-Art and a Predictive Outlook
• Semiconductor devices for entangled photon pair generation: a review
• Experimental demonstration of quantum key distribution without monitoring of the signal disturbance
• Advances in device-independent quantum key distribution
• Experimental Machine Learning of Quantum States
• Numerical approach for unstructured quantum key distribution
• Recent advances and future perspectives of single-photon avalanche diodes for quantum photonics applications
• Experimental quantum repeater without quantum memory
• Bright room temperature single photon source at telecom range in cubic silicon carbide
• Strongly Cavity-Enhanced Spontaneous Emission from Silicon-Vacancy Centers in Diamond
• Recent advances on integrated quantum communications
• Cavity quantum electrodynamics with color centers in diamond
• Self-coherent phase reference sharing for continuous-variable quantum key distribution
• Quantum teleportation over 100 km of fiber using highly-efficient superconducting nanowire single photon detectors
• Imaging a Nitrogen-Vacancy Center with a Diamond Immersion Metalens
• Reliable numerical key rates for quantum key distribution
• High-dimensional decoy-state quantum key distribution over 0.3 km of multicore telecommunication optical fibers
• Coherent phase transfer for real-world twin-field quantum key distribution
• Entanglement-Assisted Quantum Networks: Mechanics, Enabling Technologies, Challenges, and Research Directions
• Drone-based all-weather entanglement distribution
• Metropolitan quantum key distribution with silicon photonics
• Key Reconciliation with Low-Density Parity-Check Codes for Long-Distance Quantum Cryptography
• Photon number correlation for quantum enhanced imaging and sensing
• Towards Quantum Communication in Free-Space Seawater
• Space-borne quantum memories for global quantum communication
• Chip-based measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution
• Quantum imaging with sub-Poissonian light: challenges and perspectives in optical metrology
• Practical Quantum Digital Signature
• A Survey and Comparison of Post-quantum and Quantum Blockchains
• High-performance quantum entanglement generation via cascaded second-order nonlinear processes
• Cat codes with optimal decoherence suppression for a lossy bosonic channel
• High-speed Gaussian modulated continuous-variable quantum key distribution with a local local oscillator based on pilot-tone-assisted phase compensation
• Quantum-memory-assisted multi-photon generation for efficient quantum information processing
• Laser seeding attack in quantum key distribution
• Attacks on practical quantum key distribution systems (and how to prevent them)
• Decoy-state quantum key distribution with a leaky source
• Room temperature single-photon emitters in silicon nitride
• Experimental quantum key distribution with source flaws
• Quantum secret sharing using weak coherent states
• Quantum key distribution with correlated sources
• Quantum secret sharing with polarization-entangled photon pairs
• Continuous-variable measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution with photon subtraction
• Gigahertz measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution using directly modulated lasers
• Experimental statistical signature of many-body quantum interference
• Optimized Designs for Telecom-Wavelength Quantum Light Sources Based on Hybrid Circular Bragg Gratings
• Fundamental rate-loss tradeoff for the quantum internet
• Blue-Light-Emitting Color Centers in High-Quality Hexagonal Boron Nitride
• First Experimental Demonstration of Secure NFV Orchestration over an SDN-Controlled Optical Network with Time-Shared Quantum Key Distribution Resources
• Towards satellite-based quantum-secure time transfer
• Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution for nonstandalone networks
• Quantum key distribution with dissipative Kerr soliton generated by on-chip microresonators
• Demonstration of Entanglement Purification and Swapping Protocol to Design Quantum Repeater in IBM Quantum Computer
• Simple and high-speed polarization-based QKD
• NISQ Computers: A Path to Quantum Supremacy
• Quantum Technologies in Space
• Quantum key distribution overcoming extreme noise: simultaneous subspace coding using high-dimensional entanglement
• Characterising the correlations of prepare-and-measure quantum networks
• High-rate intercity quantum key distribution with a semiconductor single-photon source
• Conference key agreement with single-photon interference
• Noisy pre-processing facilitating a photonic realisation of device-independent quantum key distribution
• A security proof of continuous-variable QKD using three coherent states
• Tools for the Performance Optimization of Single-Photon Quantum Key Distribution
• Pathways for entanglement based quantum communication in the face of high noise
• Noise analysis of simultaneous quantum key distribution and classical communication scheme using a true local oscillator
• Invisible Trojan-horse attack
• Insecurity of detector-device-independent quantum key distribution
• Repeaters for Continuous Variable Quantum Communication
• Fundamental building block for all-optical scalable quantum networks
• Localized creation of yellow single photon emitting carbon complexes in hexagonal boron nitride
• Tight finite-key security for twin-field quantum key distribution
• Finite-key security analysis of quantum key distribution with imperfect light sources
• Quantum dot single-photon emission coupled into single-mode fibers with 3D printed micro-objectives
• Passive state preparation in the Gaussian-modulated coherent states quantum key distribution
• Simultaneous classical communication and quantum key distribution using continuous variable
• Real-time shaping of entangled photons by classical control and feedback
• Deterministically Fabricated Solid-State Quantum-Light Sources
• Polarization basis tracking scheme for quantum key distribution with revealed sifted key bits
• Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution: from idea towards application
• Security analysis of quantum key distribution with small block length and its application to quantum space communications
• Observation of quantum fingerprinting beating the classical limit
• Experimental validation of quantum steering ellipsoids and tests of volume monogamy relations
• Protecting fiber-optic quantum key distribution sources against light-injection attacks
• A solid state source of photon triplets based on quantum dot molecules
• Experimental passive state preparation for continuous variable quantum communications
• Plug-and-play quantum devices with efficient fiber-quantum dot interface
• Finite-key security analysis for quantum key distribution with leaky sources
• A directly phase-modulated light source
• Single photon emission from individual nanophotonic-integrated colloidal quantum dots
• Experimental Quantum Network Coding
• Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen steering in Gaussian weighted graph states
• Towards security recommendations for public-key infrastructures for production environments in the post-quantum era
• Piezoelectric actuation for integrated photonics
• Measurement-device-independent quantum communication with an untrusted source
• Performance of real-time adaptive optics compensation in a turbulent channel with high-dimensional spatial-mode encoding
• High-Dimensional Entanglement in States with Positive Partial Transposition
• Entanglement protection of high-dimensional states by adaptive optics
• Security of quantum key distribution with intensity correlations
• Lightweight authentication for quantum key distribution
• Measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution of multiple degrees of freedom of a single photon
• Deployed MDI-QKD and Bell-State Measurements Coexisting with Standard Internet Data and Networking Equipment
• Measurement-Device-Independent Quantum Key Distribution with Leaky Sources
• Fundamental limits on key rates in device-independent quantum key distribution
• Interference of Temporally Distinguishable Photons Using Frequency-Resolved Detection
• Securing practical quantum communication systems with optical power limiters
• Custom silicon technology for SPAD-arrays with red-enhanced sensitivity and low timing jitter
• Security of the decoy state method for quantum key distribution
• Practical decoy-state method for twin-field quantum key distribution
• Experimental quantum forgery of quantum optical money
• Interference of short optical pulses from independent gain-switched laser diodes for quantum secure communications
• Ultralow-loss integrated photonics enables bright, narrow-band, photon-pair sources
• Experimental demonstration of drone-based quantum key distribution
• Information theoretic security of quantum key distribution overcoming the repeaterless secret key capacity bound
• Quantum interferometers: principles and applications
• Reference Pulse Attack on Continuous-Variable Quantum Key Distribution with Local Local Oscillator under trusted phase noise
• Robust countermeasure against detector control attack in practical quantum key distribution system
• Finite-key analysis for twin-field quantum key distribution with composable security
• Demonstration of a quantum key distribution network in urban fibre-optic communication lines
• Performance of Underwater Quantum Key Distribution with Polarization Encoding
• Quantum key distribution with setting-choice-independently correlated light sources
• Resource-efficient analyzer of Bell and Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger states of multiphoton systems
• Asymmetric twin-field quantum key distribution
• Automated machine learning for secure key rate in discrete-modulated continuous-variable quantum key distribution
• Improved Finite-Key Security Analysis of Quantum Key Distribution Against Trojan-Horse Attacks
• Deterministic quantum state transfer between remote qubits in cavities
• Intercore spontaneous Raman scattering impact on quantum key distribution in multicore fber
• Two-Photon Excitation Sets Limit to Entangled Photon Pair Generation from Quantum Emitters
• Directionally Tunable Co- and Counter-Propagating Photon Pairs from a Nonlinear Metasurface
• Entanglement distribution with minimal memory requirements using time-bin photonic qudits
• Detecting itinerant single microwave photons
• Upper security bounds for coherent-one-way quantum key distribution
• Security of decoy-state quantum key distribution with correlated intensity fluctuations
• Detector-Device-Independent Quantum Key Distribution
• Characterizing photon number statistics using conjugate optical homodyne detection
• Interference between independent photonic integrated devices for quantum key distribution
• Quantum key establishment via a multimode fiber
• Key rates for quantum key distribution protocols with asymmetric noise
• Asynchronous Entanglement Routing for the Quantum Internet
• Key rate enhancement using qutrit states for uncharacterized quantum key distribution
• Scalable microwave-to-optical transducers at single photon level with spins
• Security of quantum key distribution with imperfect phase randomisation
• Heralded single excitation of atomic ensemble via solid-state-based telecom photon detection
• Quantum soft filtering for the improved security analysis of the coherent one-way quantum-key-distribution protocol
• Practical Quantum Key Distribution Secure Against Side-Channels
• Polarization dynamics of solid-state quantum emitters
• Zero-error attack against coherent-one-way quantum key distribution
• Preparing a commercial quantum key distribution system for certification against implementation loopholes
• On-demand semiconductor source of 780 nm single photons with controlled temporal wave packets
• Security of quantum key distribution with multiphoton components
• Double quantum dot Cooper-pair splitter at finite couplings
• Security of quantum key distribution with non-I.I.D. light sources
• Interactive simulations for quantum key distribution
• The BB84 quantum key distribution using conjugate homodyne detection
• Hybrid quantum photonics based on artificial atoms placed inside one hole of a photonic crystal cavity
• Long-distance device-independent quantum key distribution
• A fully passive transmitter for decoy-state quantum key distribution
• Quantum key distribution with untrusted detectors
• Loss-tolerant position-based quantum cryptography
• Entropy bounds for multiparty device-independent cryptography
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• Secure quantum communication in the presence of phase and polarization dependent loss
• Entangled-photon decision maker
• Best-practice criteria for practical security of self-differencing avalanche photodiode detectors in quantum key distribution
• Characterisation of state-preparation uncertainty in quantum key distribution
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• High-dimensional coherent one-way quantum key distribution
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• Realization of a deterministic quantum Toffoli gate with a single photon
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• Quantum-secured data transmission in urban fibre-optic communication lines
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• Noise-suppressing channel allocation in dynamic DWDM-QKD networks using LightGBM
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• Recent advances on quantum key distribution overcoming the linear secret key capacity bound
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• Countermeasure against blinding attacks on low-noise detectors with background noise cancellation scheme
• A universal simulating framework for quantum key distribution systems
• Phase Noise in Real-World Twin-Field Quantum Key Distribution
• One-sided Measurement-Device-Independent Quantum Key Distribution
• Composable security against collective attacks of a modified BB84 QKD protocol with information only in one basis
• Receiver-Device-Independent Quantum Key Distribution Protocols
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• Hybrid KTP-plasmonic nanostructures for enhanced nonlinear optics at the nanoscale
• Security boundaries of an optical power limiter for protecting quantum key distribution systems
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• Second-order coding rates for key distillation in quantum key distribution
• Enhancing quantum transduction via long-range waveguide mediated interactions between quantum emitters
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• Optimizing the deployment of quantum key distribution switch-based networks
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• Automated design of quantum optical experiments for device-independent quantum key distribution
• Simple security proofs for continuous-variable quantum key distribution with intensity fluctuating sources
• Resource-efficient fault-tolerant one-way quantum repeater with code concatenation
• Quantum key distribution with simply characterized light sources
• Deploying hybrid quantum-secured infrastructure for applications: When quantum and post-quantum can work together
• Multi-tree Quantum Routing in Realistic Topologies
• Practical quantum key distribution with non-phase-randomized coherent states
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• Advances in Continuous Variable Measurement-Device-Independent Quantum Key Distribution
• On the weight of entanglement
• Experimental Demonstration of a Quantum Controlled-SWAP Gate with Multiple Degrees of Freedom of a Single Photon
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• On the problem of non-zero word error rates for fixed-rate error correction codes in continuous variable quantum key distribution
• Finite-key analysis of loss-tolerant quantum key distribution based on random sampling theory
• Coherent Control of a Long-Lived Nuclear Memory Spin in a Germanium-Vacancy Multi-Qubit Node
• Dynamical pairwise entanglement and two-point correlations in the three-ligand spin-star structure
• Practical quantum multiparty signatures using quantum-key-distribution networks
• Entanglement purification of nonlocal quantum-dot-confined electrons assisted by double-sided optical microcavities
• Tweezer-assisted subwavelength positioning of atomic arrays in an optical cavity
• Detector blinding attacks on counterfactual quantum key distribution
• Measurement-device-independent quantum-secret-sharing networks with linear Bell-state analysis
• Quantum key distribution with post-processing driven by physical unclonable functions
• Beating direct transmission bounds for quantum key distribution with a multiple quantum memory station
• Efficient Dicke state generation in a network of lossy channels
• No graph state is preparable in quantum networks with bipartite sources and no classical communication
• Practical quantum random number generator based on sampling vacuum fluctuations
• Kak's three-stage protocol of secure quantum communication revisited: Hitherto unknown strengths and weaknesses of the protocol
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• Recovering the lost steerability of quantum states within non-Markovian environments by utilizing quantum partially collapsing measurements
• A passive transmitter for quantum key distribution with coherent light
• Gaussian Random Number Generator: Implemented in FPGA for Quantum Key Distribution
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• Modular source for near-infrared quantum communication
• Quantum key distribution with unbounded pulse correlations
• Quantum Advantages in (n,d)->1 Random Access Codes
• Polar Codes-based Information Reconciliation Scheme with Frozen Bits Erasure Strategy for Quantum Key Distribution
• An agnostic-Dolinar receiver for coherent states classification
• Interplay between emission wavelength and s-p splitting in MOCVD-grown InGaAs/GaAs quantum dots emitting above 1.3 μm
• Towards Quantum Repeaters with Solid-State Qubits: Spin-Photon Entanglement Generation using Self-Assembled Quantum Dots
• Unexpected detection rate dependence of the intrinsic detection efficiency in single-photon detectors based on avalanche diodes
• Routing algorithm within the multiple non-overlapping paths approach for quantum key distribution networks
• Sender-controlled measurement-device-independent multiparty quantum communication
• Certification of non-Gaussian Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Steering
• Characterization of entangling properties of quantum measurement via two-mode quantum detector tomography using coherent state probes
• Security of entanglement-based QKD with realistic parametric down-conversion sources
• Detector-decoy high-dimensional quantum key distribution
• Quantum Random Number Generation Based on Phase Reconstruction
• Efficient experimental quantum fingerprinting with wavelength division multiplexing
• Foiling zero-error attacks against coherent-one-way quantum key distribution
• Improving entanglement purification through coherent superposition of roles
• Accelerating multipartite entanglement generation in non-Hermitian superconducting qubits
• Secret key rate of a continuous-variable quantum-key-distribution scheme when the detection process is inaccessible to eavesdroppers
• Continuous-variable quantum key distribution over 50.4 km fiber using integrated silicon photonic transmitter and receiver
• Different types of photon entanglement from a constantly driven quantum emitter inside a cavity
• Intensity correlations in decoy-state BB84 quantum key distribution systems
• Free-space reconfigurable quantum key distribution network
• Entropy bounds for device-independent quantum key distribution with local Bell test
• Generation of True Quantum Random Numbers with On-Demand Probability Distributions via Single-Photon Quantum Walks
• Quantum key distribution with any two independent and identically distributed states
• Optical designs for realization of a set of schemes for quantum cryptography
• Long-Step Path-Following Algorithm for Quantum Information Theory: Some Numerical Aspects and Applications
• Naimark extension for the single-photon canonical phase measurement
• Enhanced Bell state measurement for efficient measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution using 3-dimensional quantum states
• Sharp finite statistics for quantum key distribution
• Characterising higher-order phase correlations in gain-switched laser sources with application to quantum key distribution
• Single-photon characteristics of superposed weak coherent states
• Hacking coherent-one-way quantum key distribution with present-day technology
• A Survey on Continuous Variable Quantum Key Distribution for Secure Data Transmission: Toward the Future of Secured Quantum-Networks
• Integrated Silicon Photonic Transmitter for Polarization-Encoded Quantum Key Distribution
• Twin-field-based multi-party quantum key agreement
• Loss-tolerant quantum key distribution with detection efficiency mismatch
• Generalized Number-Phase Lattice Encoding of a Bosonic Mode for Quantum Error Correction
• Analysis of Quantum Steering Measures
• Time-dependent switching of the photon entanglement type using a driven quantum emitter-cavity system
• Single photon sources with different spatial modes
• Scalable Determination of Multipartite Entanglement in Quantum Networks
• Beating the repeaterless bound with adaptive measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution
• QKD protected fiber-based infrastructure for time dissemination
• A simple relation of guessing probability in quantum key distribution
• Limit of Gaussian operations and measurements for Gaussian state discrimination, and its application to state comparison
• On-chip pulse shaping of entangled photons
• Simulations of distributed-phase-reference quantum key distribution protocols
• Improving quantum dot based single-photon source with continuous measurements
• Differential-phase-shift QKD with practical Mach-Zehnder interferometer
• Phonon-induced transition between entangled and nonentangled photon emission in constantly driven quantum-dot--cavity systems
• Simple and Rigorous Proof Method for the Security of Practical Quantum Key Distribution in the Single-Qubit Regime Using Mismatched Basis Measurements
• Deterministic generation of high-dimensional entanglement between distant atomic memories via multi-photon exchange
• Entanglement-assisted authenticated BB84 protocol
• Fundamental limits on concentrating and preserving tensorized quantum resources
• Nondestructive Verification of Entangled States via Fidelity Witnessing
• Reference-Beam Attacks against Twin-Field Quantum Key Distribution using Optical Injection Locking
• Experimental demonstration of robust entanglement distribution over reciprocal noisy channels assisted by a counter-propagating classical reference light
• Device-independent secret key rates via a post-selected Bell inequality
• Optical-pumping attack on a quantum key distribution laser source
• Quantum microwave photonics
• Security against collective attacks for a continuous-variable quantum key distribution protocol using homodyne detection and postselection
• Entanglement percolation in random quantum networks
• Quantum Key Distribution with Imperfections: Recent Advances in Security Proofs
• Gigahertz-rate thin-film lithium niobate receiver for time-bin quantum communication
• Optimized Spectral Purity of Heralded Single Photons at the Telecom O-Band
• All-optical quantum signal demultiplexer
• Advancements in Entangled Photon Pairs in 2D Van der Waals Materials for On-chip Quantum Applications
• Tight scaling of key rate for differential-phase-shift quantum key distribution
• Reducing Network Cooling Cost Using Twin-Field Quantum Key Distribution
• Quantum key distribution based on the quantum eraser
• Adaptive Techniques in Practical Quantum Key Distribution
• Finite-key analysis for twin-field quantum key distribution based on generalized operator dominance condition
• Fast all-optical nuclear spin echo technique based on EIT
• Design and Analysis of Communication Protocols using Quantum Resources
• Homology-changing percolation transitions on finite graphs
• Shannon-Limit Approached Information Reconciliation for Quantum Key Distribution
• Integrated Silicon Photonics for High-Speed Quantum Key Distribution
• Phase-correlation-free quantum key distribution source operating at gigahertz rates
• Are optical quantum information processing experiments possible without beamsplitter?
• Robust entanglement distribution via telecom fibre assisted by an asynchronous counter-propagating laser light
• Multi-core fiber integrated multi-port beamsplitters for quantum information processing
• Finite-key analysis for a practical decoy-state twin-field quantum key distribution
• Coupling hBN quantum emitters to 1D photonic crystal cavities
• Optimal resource requirements for connected quantum sub-networks
• Single photon sources from two dimensional materials and their interfacing with plasmonic waveguides
• Security loophole in error verification in quantum key distribution
• Experimental Quantum-enhanced Cryptographic Remote Control
• An RF Timer of Electrons and Photons with the Potential to reach Picosecond Precision
• Source-independent quantum key distribution without pre-sending entanglement
• Increasing the secret key rates and point-to-multipoint extension for experimental coherent-one-way quantum key distribution protocol
• Enhancing discrete-modulated continuous-variable measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution via quantum catalysis
• Quantum information transfer using weak measurements and any non-product resource state
• Towards a Unified Quantum Protocol Framework: Classification, Implementation, and Use Cases
• Quantum Metamaterials: Applications in quantum information science
• Pulsed laser attack at 1061 nm potentially compromises quantum key distribution
• Single photon emission and recombination dynamics in self-assembled GaN/AlN quantum dots
• A cost-effective measurement-device-independent quantum key distribution system for quantum networks