Hierarchical fragmentation and differential star formation in the Galactic "Snake": infrared dark cloud G11.11-0.12

Abstract

We present Submillimeter Array (SMA) $\lambda =$ 0.88 and 1.3 mm broad band observations, and the Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) observations in $\mathrm{N}{\mathrm{H}}_3$ $(J,K)=(1,1)$ up to $(5,5)$, ${\mathrm{H}}_2\mathrm{O}$ and $\mathrm{C}{\mathrm{H}}_3\mathrm{OH}$ maser lines toward the two most massive molecular clumps in infrared dark cloud (IRDC) G11.11-0.12. Sensitive high-resolution images reveal hierarchical fragmentation in dense molecular gas from the $\sim 1$ pc clump scale down to $\sim 0.01$ pc condensation scale. At each scale, the mass of the fragments is orders of magnitude larger than the Jeans mass. This is common to all four IRDC clumps we studied, suggesting that turbulence plays an important role in the early stages of clustered star formation. Masers, shock heated $\mathrm{N}{\mathrm{H}}_3$ gas, and outflows indicate intense ongoing star formation in some cores while no such signatures are found in others. Furthermore, chemical differentiation may reflect the difference in evolutionary stages among these star formation seeds. We find $\mathrm{N}{\mathrm{H}}_3$ ortho/para ratios of $1.1\pm 0.4$, $2.0\pm 0.4$, and $3.0\pm 0.7$ associated with three outflows, and the ratio tends to increase along the outflows downstream. Our combined SMA and VLA observations of several IRDC clumps present the most in depth view so far of the early stages prior to the hot core phase, revealing snapshots of physical and chemical properties at various stages along an apparent evolutionary sequence.

21 pages, 11 figures, 8 tables, accepted to MNRAS; this version includes minor typo corrections from proof

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