Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury XVI. Star Cluster Formation Efficiency and the Clustered Fraction of Young Stars

Abstract

We use the Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury (PHAT) survey dataset to perform spatially resolved measurements of star cluster formation efficiency ($\Gamma$), the fraction of stellar mass formed in long-lived star clusters. We use robust star formation history and cluster parameter constraints, obtained through color-magnitude diagram analysis of resolved stellar populations, to study Andromeda's cluster and field populations over the last $\sim$300 Myr. We measure $\Gamma$ of 4-8% for young, 10-100 Myr old populations in M31. We find that cluster formation efficiency varies systematically across the M31 disk, consistent with variations in mid-plane pressure. These $\Gamma$ measurements expand the range of well-studied galactic environments, providing precise constraints in an HI-dominated, low intensity star formation environment. Spatially resolved results from M31 are broadly consistent with previous trends observed on galaxy-integrated scales, where $\Gamma$ increases with increasing star formation rate surface density (${\Sigma }_{\mathrm{SFR}}$). However, we can explain observed scatter in the relation and attain better agreement between observations and theoretical models if we account for environmental variations in gas depletion time (${\tau }_{\mathrm{dep}}$) when modeling $\Gamma$, accounting for the qualitative shift in star formation behavior when transitioning from a H${}_2$-dominated to a HI-dominated interstellar medium. We also demonstrate that $\Gamma$ measurements in high ${\Sigma }_{\mathrm{SFR}}$ starburst systems are well-explained by ${\tau }_{\mathrm{dep}}$-dependent fiducial $\Gamma$ models.

arXiv comment26 pages, 13 figures, Accepted by ApJ

References in corpus (75)

• emcee: The MCMC Hammer
• On the variation of the Initial Mass Function
• The Global Schmidt Law in Star Forming Galaxies
• Embedded Clusters in Molecular Clouds
• The CO-to-H2 Conversion Factor
• The Star Formation Efficiency in Nearby Galaxies: Measuring Where Gas Forms Stars Effectively
• The Star Formation Law in Nearby Galaxies on Sub-Kpc Scales
• Evolution of asymptotic giant branch stars II. Optical to far-infrared isochrones with improved TP-AGB models
• A General Theory of Turbulence-Regulated Star Formation, From Spirals to ULIRGs
• WFPC2 Stellar Photometry with HSTphot
• Different star formation laws for disks versus starbursts at low and high redshifts
• Molecular Gas and Star Formation in Nearby Disk Galaxies
• The Role of Pressure in GMC Formation II: The H_2 - Pressure Relation
• The CO-to-H2 Conversion Factor and Dust-to-Gas Ratio on Kiloparsec Scales in Nearby Galaxies
• Numerical Methods of Star Formation History Measurement and Applications to Seven Dwarf Spheroidals
• A Universal, Local Star Formation Law in Galactic Clouds, Nearby Galaxies, High-Redshift Disks, and Starbursts
• The Star Formation History of the Large Magellanic Cloud
• On the fraction of star formation occurring in bound stellar clusters
• Extremely Inefficient Star Formation in the Outer Disks of Nearby Galaxies
• The Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury
• The ACS Nearby Galaxy Survey Treasury IX. Constraining asymptotic giant branch evolution with old metal-poor galaxies
• Star Formation from Galaxies to Globules
• The Big Problems in Star Formation: the Star Formation Rate, Stellar Clustering, and the Initial Mass Function
• The Second Survey of the Molecular Clouds in the Large Magellanic Cloud by NANTEN. II. Star Formation
• The Spitzer Survey of Stellar Structure in Galaxies (S${}^4$G): Precise Stellar Mass Distributions from Automated Dust Correction at 3.6 microns
• The Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury X. Ultraviolet to Infrared Photometry of 117 Million Equidistant Stars
• On the Star Formation Rate - Brightest Cluster Relation: Estimating the peak SFR in post-merger galaxies
• The long bar as seen by the VVV survey: I. Colour-magnitude diagrams
• Stellar mass map and dark matter distribution in M31
• A wide-field HI mosaic of Messier 31. II.The disk warp, rotation and the dark matter halo
• Probing the role of the galactic environment in the formation of stellar clusters; using M83 as a test bench
• Molecular gas in the Andromeda galaxy
• Gravitational fragmentation and the formation of brown dwarfs in stellar clusters
• Stellar Clusters in M83: Formation, evolution, disruption and the influence of environment
• Variations in Stellar Clustering with Environment: Dispersed Star Formation and the Origin of Faint Fuzzies
• SLUG -- Stochastically Lighting Up Galaxies. III: A Suite of Tools for Simulated Photometry, Spectroscopy, and Bayesian Inference with Stochastic Stellar Populations
• A Wide-field High Resolution HI Mosaic of Messier 31: I. Opaque Atomic Gas and Star Formation Rate Density
• The distinction between star clusters and associations
• The Luminosity, Mass, and Age Distributions of Compact Star Clusters in M83 Based on HST/WFC3 Observations
• Chemical abundances in M31 from HII regions
• The Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury XI: The Spatially-Resolved Recent Star Formation History of M31
• The star cluster formation history of the LMC
• The metallicity profile of M31 from spectroscopy of hundreds of HII regions and PNe
• Similarities in Populations of Star Clusters
• Unravelling the mystery of the M31 bar
• Probing cluster formation under extreme conditions: massive star clusters in blue compact galaxies
• Accounting for Stochastic Fluctuations when Analysing Integrated Light of Star Clusters. I: First Systematics
• On the Estimation of Systematic Uncertainties of Star Formation Histories
• The star cluster - field star connection in nearby spiral galaxies. II. Field star and cluster formation histories and their relation
• New Tests for Disruption Mechanisms of Star Clusters: Methods and Application to the Antennae Galaxies
• On the Estimation of Random Uncertainties of Star Formation Histories
• Short GMC lifetimes: an observational estimate with the PdBI Arcsecond Whirlpool Survey (PAWS)
• Environmental regulation of cloud and star formation in galactic bars
• Molecular gas in the galaxy M83. I - The molecular gas distribution
• Tightly Correlated HI and FUV Emission in the Outskirts of M83
• A clear age-velocity dispersion correlation in Andromeda's stellar disk
• PHAT Stellar Cluster Survey I. Year 1 Catalog and Integrated Photometry
• PHAT Stellar Cluster Survey. II. Andromeda Project Cluster Catalog
• The Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury V: Ages and Masses of the Year 1 Stellar Clusters
• Planetary Nebulae in Face-On Spiral Galaxies. III. Planetary Nebula Kinematics and Disk Mass
• On the Fraction of Star Clusters Surviving the Embedded Phase
• The rapid dispersal of low-mass virialised clusters
• Clumping and the Interpretation of kpc-Scale Maps of the Interstellar Medium: Smooth HI and Clumpy, Variable H2 Surface Density
• The Link Between the Formation Rates of Clusters and Stars in Galaxies
• The kinematic identification of a thick stellar disc in M31
• The cluster population of the irregular galaxy NGC 4449 as seen by the Hubble Advanced Camera for Surveys
• Molecular gas in the galaxy M83. II - Kinematics of the molecular gas
• The ACS Nearby Galaxy Survey Treasury. X. Quantifying the Star Cluster Formation Efficiency of Nearby Dwarf Galaxies
• Why Do Stars Form In Clusters? An Analytic Model for Stellar Correlation Functions
• A variation of the fraction of stars that form in bound clusters within M83
• The Snapshot Hubble U-Band Cluster Survey (SHUCS) II. Star Cluster Population of NGC 2997
• The Star Cluster System in the Local Group Starburst Galaxy IC 10
• Pitfalls when observationally characterizing the relative formation rates of stars and stellar clusters in galaxies
• The star cluster - field star connection in nearby spiral galaxies I. Data analysis techniques and application to NGC 4395
• The star formation history of the Large Magellanic Cloud as seen by star clusters and stars

Cited by in corpus (80)

• Star Clusters Across Cosmic Time
• The formation and assembly history of the Milky Way revealed by its globular cluster population
• The E-MOSAICS Project: simulating the formation and co-evolution of galaxies and their star cluster populations
• When Feedback Fails: The Scaling and Saturation of Star Formation Efficiency
• The formation and hierarchical assembly of globular cluster populations
• The E-MOSAICS project: tracing galaxy formation and assembly with the age-metallicity distribution of globular clusters
• Globular Cluster Formation and Evolution in the Context of Cosmological Galaxy Assembly: Open Questions
• Star clusters near and far; tracing star formation across cosmic time
• The PHANGS-HST Survey: Physics at High Angular resolution in Nearby GalaxieS with the Hubble Space Telescope
• The GRIFFIN project -- Formation of star clusters with individual massive stars in a simulated dwarf galaxy starburst
• Forming Super Star Clusters in the Central Starburst of NGC 253
• The resolved stellar populations in the LEGUS galaxies
• The Spatial Relation between Young Star Clusters and Molecular Clouds in M 51 with LEGUS
• A Multi-Band Catalog of 10978 Star Clusters, Associations and Candidates in the Milky Way
• The Bursty Star Formation Histories of Low-mass Galaxies at $0.4<z<1$ Revealed by Star Formation Rates Measured from H$\beta$ and FUV
• Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury XVIII. The High-mass Truncation of the Star Cluster Mass Function
• A model for the formation of stellar associations and clusters from giant molecular clouds
• Not all stars form in clusters -- $Gaia$-DR2 uncovers the origin of OB associations
• Star Cluster Formation in Cosmological Simulations. II. Effects of Star Formation Efficiency and Stellar Feedback
• Star cluster formation in the most extreme environments: Insights from the HiPEEC survey
• Formation histories of stars, clusters and globular clusters in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• Cold Filamentary Accretion and the Formation of Metal Poor Globular Clusters and Halo Stars
• The young star cluster population of M51 with LEGUS - II. Testing environmental dependencies
• The Young Star Cluster population of M51 with LEGUS: I. A comprehensive study of cluster formation and evolution
• The Fraction of Stars That Form in Clusters in Different Galaxies
• How do bound star clusters form?
• Introducing EMP-Pathfinder: modelling the simultaneous formation and evolution of stellar clusters in their host galaxies
• LEGUS and Halpha-LEGUS Observations of Star Clusters in NGC 4449: Improved Ages and the Fraction of Light in Clusters as a Function of Age
• The difference in metallicity distribution functions of halo stars and globular clusters as a function of galaxy type: A tracer of globular cluster formation and evolution
• Fossil stellar streams and their globular cluster populations in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• Super Star Clusters in the Central Starburst of NGC 4945
• Great Balls of FIRE I: The formation of star clusters across cosmic time in a Milky Way-mass galaxy
• On the Origin of the Bimodal Rotational Velocity Distribution in Stellar Clusters: Rotation on the Pre-Main Sequence
• Young star cluster populations in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• Outflows from Super Star Clusters in the Central Starburst of NGC253
• A high cluster formation efficiency in the Sagittarius B2 complex
• Looking for obscured young star clusters in NCG 1313
• On Cepheid Distance Scale Bias due to Stellar Companions and Cluster Populations
• Do the majority of stars form as gravitationally unbound?
• The formation of massive stellar clusters in converging galactic flows with photoionisation
• Massive star cluster formation and evolution in tidal dwarf galaxies
• The mass fraction of halo stars contributed by the disruption of globular clusters in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• Star Formation Histories of the LEGUS dwarf galaxies. II. Spatially resolved star formation history of the Magellanic irregular NGC 4449
• A model for the minimum mass of bound stellar clusters and its dependence on the galactic environment
• A tight relation between the age distributions of stellar clusters and the properties of the interstellar medium in the host galaxy
• The Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury: Triangulum Extended Region (PHATTER). III. The Mass Function of Young Star Clusters in M33
• Young massive clusters in the interacting LIRG Arp 299: evidence for the dependence of star cluster formation and evolution on environment
• The Black Hole Mass Function Across Cosmic Times I. Stellar Black Holes and Light Seed Distribution
• StarcNet: Machine Learning for Star Cluster Identification
• DDO216-A1: a central globular cluster in a low-luminosity transition type galaxy
• The evolution of the UV luminosity function of globular clusters in the E-MOSAICS simulations
• The Panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury: Triangulum Extended Region (PHATTER). IV. Star Cluster Catalog
• Fraction of Stars in Clusters for the LEGUS Dwarf Galaxies
• Multi-Scale Stellar Associations across the Star Formation Hierarchy in PHANGS-HST Nearby Galaxies: Methodology and Properties
• Star Formation Histories of the LEGUS Spiral Galaxies. I. The flocculent spiral NGC 7793
• On the initial mass-radius relation of stellar clusters
• Calibrating star-formation rate prescriptions at different scales (10 pc to 1 kpc) in M31
• On the Reionization-Era Globular Cluster in Low-Mass Galaxy Eridanus II
• A Census of Thermally-Pulsing AGB stars in the Andromeda Galaxy and a First Estimate of their Contribution to the Global Dust Budget
• SLUG IV: A Novel Forward-Modelling Method to Derive the Demographics of Star Clusters
• Clusters, Clouds, and Correlations: Relating Young Clusters to Giant Molecular Clouds in M33 and M31
• Hubble Space Telescope Spectroscopy of a Planetary Nebula in an M31 Open Cluster: Hot-Bottom Burning at $3.4M_{\odot }$
• A Tale of 3 Dwarfs: No Extreme Cluster Formation in Extreme Star-Forming Galaxies
• A panchromatic view of star cluster formation in a simulated dwarf galaxy starburst
• Great Balls of FIRE III: Modeling Black Hole Mergers from Massive Star Clusters in Simulations of Galaxies
• The z = 9.625 Cosmic Gems Galaxy was a "Compact Blue Monster" Propelled by Massive Star Clusters
• AstroSat/UVIT Cluster Photometry in the Northern Disk of M31
• A comparison of young star properties with local galactic environment for LEGUS/LITTLE THINGS dwarf irregular galaxies
• The Hubble Space Telescope Advanced Camera for Surveys Emission Line Survey of Andromeda. I: Classical Be Stars
• Deriving physical parameters of unresolved star clusters. VII. Adaptive aperture photometry of the M31 PHAT star clusters
• Testing the Momentum-driven Supernova Feedback Paradigm in M31
• The SUNBIRD survey: the K-band luminosity functions of young massive clusters in intensely star-forming galaxies
• Catalog of Integrated-Light Star Cluster Light Curves in TESS
• The implications of clustered star formation for (proto)planetary systems and habitability
• Clusters, Clumps, Dust, & Gas (CCDG) in NGC1614: Bench-marking Cluster Demographics in Extreme Systems
• Deriving physical parameters of unresolved star clusters. VIII. Limits of aperture photometry for star cluster studies
• Massive star clusters and clumps in the collisional ring galaxy Arp 147
• walter: A Tool for Predicting Resolved Stellar Population Observations with Applications to the Roman Space Telescope
• PHANGS-MUSE: the HII region luminosity function of local star-forming galaxies
• Deriving physical parameters of unresolved star clusters. IX. Sky background effects in the aperture photometry