The LOFAR Two Meter Sky Survey: Deep Fields, I -- Direction-dependent calibration and imaging

Abstract

The Low Frequency Array (LOFAR) is an ideal instrument to conduct deep extragalactic surveys. It has a large field of view and is sensitive to large scale and compact emission. It is, however, very challenging to synthesize thermal noise limited maps at full resolution, mainly because of the complexity of the low-frequency sky and the direction dependent effects (phased array beams and ionosphere). In this first paper of a series we present a new calibration and imaging pipeline that aims at producing high fidelity, high dynamic range images with LOFAR High Band Antenna data, while being computationally efficient and robust against the absorption of unmodeled radio emission. We apply this calibration and imaging strategy to synthesize deep images of the Bootes and LH fields at 150 MHz, totaling $\sim 80$ and $\sim 100$ hours of integration respectively and reaching unprecedented noise levels at these low frequencies of $\lesssim 30$ and $\lesssim 23$ $\mu$Jy/beam in the inner $\sim 3$ deg${}^2$. This approach is also being used to reduce the LoTSS-wide data for the second data release.

arXiv commentThis paper is part of the 1st data release of the LoTSS Deep Fields. Electronic data catalogues will be made available on journal publication

References in corpus (65)

• LOFAR: The LOw-Frequency ARray
• The UKIRT Infrared Deep Sky Survey (UKIDSS)
• The GMRT 150 MHz All-sky Radio Survey: First Alternative Data Release TGSS ADR1
• The Herschel Multi-tiered Extragalactic Survey: HerMES
• SWIRE: The SIRTF Wide-area InfraRed Extragalactic Survey
• Faraday Rotation Measure Synthesis
• The LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey - I. Survey Description and Preliminary Data Release
• The LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey - II. First data release
• The SCUBA HAlf Degree Extragalactic Survey (SHADES) -- II. Submillimetre maps, catalogue and number counts
• A morphological algorithm for improving radio-frequency interference detection
• The VLA-COSMOS 3 GHz Large Project: Continuum data and source catalog release
• The SCUBA-2 Cosmology Legacy Survey: 850um maps, catalogues and number counts
• The Evolving Luminosity Function of Red Galaxies
• GLEAM: The GaLactic and Extragalactic All-sky MWA survey
• LOFAR facet calibration
• The Nature of Radio Emission from Distant Galaxies: The 1.4 GHz Observations
• LOFAR 150-MHz observations of the Boötes field: Catalogue and Source Counts
• Faceting for direction-dependent spectral deconvolution
• Systematic effects in LOFAR data: A unified calibration strategy
• The Spitzer Deep, Wide-Field Survey
• Radio interferometric gain calibration as a complex optimization problem
• Chandra and Spitzer unveil heavily obscured quasars in the SWIRE/Chandra Survey
• The faint radio sky: radio astronomy becomes mainstream
• Red Galaxy Growth and the Halo Occupation Distribution
• Correcting direction-dependent gains in the deconvolution of radio interferometric images
• XBootes: An X-Ray Survey of the NDWFS Bootes Field - Paper I Overview and Initial Results
• The Deep SWIRE Field I. 20cm Continuum Radio Observations: A Crowded Sky
• The XBootes Chandra Survey Paper II: The X-ray Source Catalog
• The VLA-COSMOS 3~GHz Large Project: Cosmic evolution of radio AGN and implications for radio-mode feedback since z~5
• Non-linear Kalman filters for calibration in radio interferometry
• Deep multi-frequency radio imaging in the Lockman Hole using the GMRT and VLA: I. The nature of the sub-mJy radio population
• A deep VLA survey at 6 cm in the Lockman Hole
• Radio Interferometric Calibration Using The SAGE Algorithm
• The 1.28 GHz MeerKAT DEEP2 Image
• A catalogue of micro-Jy radio sources in northern legacy fields
• TMC-1, the starless core sulfur factory: Discovery of NCS, HCCS, H2CCS, H2CCCS, and C4S and detection of C5S
• Deep Westerbork 1.4 GHz Imaging of the Bootes Field
• The Lockman Hole project: LOFAR observations and spectral index properties of low-frequency radio sources
• XMM-Newton observations of the Lockman Hole: X-ray source catalogue and number counts
• Distributed Radio Interferometric Calibration
• The VLA-COSMOS Survey: I. Radio Identifications from the Pilot Project
• New constraints on the magnetization of the cosmic web using LOFAR Faraday rotation observations
• The Radio/Optical Catalog of the SSA13 Field
• The Lockman Hole Project: new constraints on the sub-mJy source counts from a wide-area 1.4 GHz mosaic
• Deep Low-Frequency Radio Observations of the NOAO Bootes Field: I. Data Reduction and Catalog Construction
• T-RaMiSu: The Two-meter Radio Mini Survey I. The Bootes Field
• Revisiting the radio interferometer measurement equation. III. Addressing direction-dependent effects in 21 cm WSRT observations of 3C 147
• Extremely deep 150 MHz source counts from the LoTSS Deep Fields
• Polarized point sources in the LOFAR Two-meter Sky Survey: A preliminary catalog
• zBootes : z-band Photometry in the NOAO Deep Wide-Field Survey Bootes Field
• The Chandra Deep Wide-Field Survey: A New Chandra Legacy Survey in the Boötes Field I. X-ray Point Source Catalog, Number Counts and Multi-Wavelength Counterparts
• The Deep SWIRE Field II. 90cm Continuum Observations and 20cm-90cm Spectra
• A deep / wide 1-2 GHz snapshot survey of SDSS Stripe 82 using the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array in a compact hybrid configuration
• Non-convex optimization for self-calibration of direction-dependent effects in radio interferometric imaging
• LOFAR low-band antenna observations of the 3C295 and Bootes fields: source counts and ultra-steep spectrum sources
• The XXL Survey XVIII. ATCA 2.1 GHz radio source catalogue and source counts for the XXL-South field
• Untangling cosmic magnetic fields: Faraday tomography at metre wavelengths with LOFAR
• Polca SARA - Full polarization, direction-dependent calibration and sparse imaging for radio interferometry
• Deep LOFAR 150 MHz imaging of the Boötes field: Unveiling the faint low-frequency sky
• On the variance of radio interferometric calibration solutions: Quality-based Weighting Schemes
• Further GMRT observations of the Lockman Hole at 610 MHz
• The LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey Deep Fields -- Data Release 1: IV. Photometric redshifts and stellar masses
• Radio-loud high-redshift protogalaxy candidates in Bootes
• The Pointing Self Calibration algorithm for aperture synthesis radio telescopes
• Close encounters with the Death Star: Interactions between collapsed bodies and the Solar System

Cited by in corpus (152)

• The LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey -- V. Second data release
• The wide-field, multiplexed, spectroscopic facility WEAVE: Survey design, overview, and simulated implementation
• LOFAR observations of galaxy clusters in HETDEX
• The LOFAR Two Metre Sky Survey: Deep Fields Data Release 1 -- III. Host-galaxy identifications and value added catalogues
• The LOFAR LBA Sky Survey I. survey description and preliminary data release
• The LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey Deep fields: The star formation rate - radio luminosity relation at low frequencies
• The Planck clusters in the LOFAR sky. I. LoTSS-DR2: new detections and sample overview
• All-purpose, all-sky photometric redshifts for the Legacy Imaging Surveys Data Release 8
• The LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey Deep Fields Data Release 1: V. Survey description, source classifications and host galaxy properties
• The population of M dwarfs observed at low radio frequencies
• Sub-arcsecond imaging with the International LOFAR Telescope I. Foundational calibration strategy and pipeline
• LoTSS jellyfish galaxies: I. Radio tails in low redshift clusters
• The LOFAR Two-Metre Sky Survey (LoTSS): VI. Optical identifications for the second data release
• Accretion mode versus radio morphology in the LOFAR Deep Fields
• The Rapid ASKAP Continuum Survey IV: continuum imaging at 1367.5 MHz and the first data release of RACS-mid
• Galaxy clusters enveloped by vast volumes of relativistic electrons
• The Faraday Rotation Measure Grid of the LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey: Data Release 2
• Magnetic fields and relativistic electrons fill entire galaxy cluster
• A snapshot of the oldest AGN feedback phases
• The multiwavelength properties of red QSOs -- Evidence for dusty winds as the origin of QSO reddening
• Cosmic evolution of low-excitation radio galaxies in the LOFAR Two-meter Sky Survey Deep Fields
• Extremely deep 150 MHz source counts from the LoTSS Deep Fields
• Physical insights from the spectrum of the radio halo in MACS J0717.5+3745
• The ultra-steep diffuse radio emission observed in the cool-core cluster RX J1720.1+2638 with LOFAR at 54 MHz
• Low-frequency monitoring of flare star binary CR Draconis: Long-term electron-cyclotron maser emission
• Intracluster magnetic filaments and an encounter with a radio jet
• Nearby galaxies in LoTSS-DR2: insights into the non-linearity of the radio-SFR relation
• Deep sub-arcsecond widefield imaging of the Lockman Hole field at 144 MHz
• Radio spectral properties of star-forming galaxies in the MIGHTEE-COSMOS field and their impact on the far-infrared-radio correlation
• The galaxy group NGC 507: newly detected AGN remnant plasma transported by sloshing
• The contribution of discrete sources to the sky temperature at 144 MHz
• The LOFAR LBA Sky Survey II. First data release
• Deep low-frequency radio observations of Abell 2256 I: The filamentary radio relic
• The LOFAR and JVLA view of the distant steep spectrum radio halo in MACS J1149.5+2223
• Identifying active galactic nuclei via brightness temperature with sub-arcsecond International LOFAR Telescope observations
• V-LoTSS: The Circularly-Polarised LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey
• The LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey: the radio view of the cosmic star formation history
• LoTSS Jellyfish Galaxies III. The first identification of jellyfish galaxies in the Perseus cluster
• Understanding the radio relic emission in the galaxy cluster MACS J0717.5+3745: spectral analysis
• Discovery of a Supercluster in the eROSITA Final Equatorial Depth Survey: X-ray Properties, Radio Halo, and Double Relics
• The Planck clusters in the LOFAR sky VI. LoTSS-DR2: Properties of radio relics
• MIGHTEE: Deep 1.4 GHz Source Counts and the Sky Temperature Contribution of Star Forming Galaxies and Active Galactic Nuclei
• A MeerKAT-meets-LOFAR Study of MS 1455.0+2232: A 590 kiloparsec 'Mini'-Halo in a Sloshing Cool-Core Cluster
• Abell 1033: Radio halo and gently reenergized tail at 54 MHz
• The best of both worlds: Combining LOFAR and Apertif to derive resolved radio spectral index images
• New constraints on the magnetic field in filaments of the cosmic web
• LOFAR high-band antenna observations of the Perseus cluster
• Deep low-frequency radio observations of Abell 2256 II: The ultra-steep spectrum radio halo
• The eROSITA Final Equatorial-Depth Survey (eFEDS): LOFAR view of brightest cluster galaxies and AGN feedback
• A 3.5 Mpc-long radio relic in the galaxy cluster ClG 0217+70
• Cosmic evolution of radio-AGN feedback: confronting models with data
• Multi-frequency characterisation of remnant radio galaxies in the Lockman Hole field
• The LOFAR view of giant, early-type galaxies: radio emission from active nuclei and star formation
• The bright end of the infrared luminosity functions and the abundance of hyperluminous infrared galaxies
• A three-component giant radio halo: the puzzling case of the galaxy cluster Abell 2142
• Nonthermal phenomena in the center of Abell 1775: An 800 kpc head-tail, revived fossil plasma and slingshot radio halo
• Searching for pulsars associated with polarised point sources using LOFAR: Initial discoveries from the TULIPP project
• Diffuse Radio Emission from Galaxy Clusters in the LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey Deep Fields
• Walk on the Low Side: LOFAR explores the low-frequency radio emission of GASP jellyfish galaxies
• Faraday tomography of LoTSS-DR2 data: I. Faraday moments in the high-latitude outer Galaxy and revealing Loop III in polarisation
• The LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey Deep fields: A new analysis of low-frequency radio luminosity as a star-formation tracer in the Lockman Hole region
• Unmasking the history of 3C 293 with LOFAR sub-arcsecond imaging
• Peculiar radio$-$X-ray relationship in active stars
• Giant radio galaxies in the LoTSS Boötes deep field
• A LOFAR view into the stormy environment of the galaxy cluster 2A0335+096
• Particle re-acceleration and diffuse radio sources in the galaxy cluster Abell 1550
• Discovery of a radio halo (and relic) in a $M_{500}<2\times 10^{14}$ M${}_{\odot }$ cluster
• A MeerKAT-meets-LOFAR study of Abell 1413: a moderately disturbed non-cool-core cluster hosting a $\sim 500$ kpc 'mini'-halo
• Radio spectral properties of star-forming galaxies between 150-5000MHz in the ELAIS-N1 field
• MIGHTEE-HI: deep spectral line observations of the COSMOS field
• Energy balance SED modelling can be effective at high redshifts regardless of UV-FIR offsets
• A machine learning classifier for LOFAR radio galaxy cross-matching techniques
• The LOFAR-eFEDS survey: The incidence of radio and X-ray AGN and the disk-jet connection
• Ubiquitous radio emission in quasars: predominant AGN origin and a connection to jets, dust and winds
• ViCTORIA project: The LOFAR HBA Virgo Cluster Survey
• Diffuse radio emission from non-Planck galaxy clusters in the LoTSS-DR2 fields
• The prototypical major cluster merger Abell 754. I. Calibration of MeerKAT data and radio/X-ray spectral mapping of the cluster
• Investigating ionospheric calibration for LOFAR 2.0 with simulated observations
• Noema formIng Cluster survEy (NICE): Discovery of a starbursting galaxy group with a radio-luminous core at z=3.95
• Late-Time Evolution and Modeling of the Off-Axis Gamma-ray Burst Candidate FIRST J141918.9+394036
• A novel Bayesian approach for decomposing the radio emission of quasars: I. Modelling the radio excess in red quasars
• Gravitational lensing in LoTSS DR2 -- Extremely faint 144-MHz radio emission from two highly magnified quasars
• Large closed-field corona of WX UMa evidenced from radio observations
• Abell 1430: A merging cluster with exceptional diffuse radio emission
• The LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey Deep Fields -- Data Release 1: IV. Photometric redshifts and stellar masses
• LOFAR Deep Fields: Probing a broader population of polarized radio galaxies in ELAIS-N1
• Barbell-shaped giant radio galaxy with ~100 kpc kink in the jet
• Relic jet activity in "Hanny's Voorwerp" revealed by the LOFAR Two metre Sky Survey
• The LOFAR Two Metre Sky Survey Data Release 2: Probabilistic Spectral Source Classifications and Faint Radio Source Demographics
• The LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey: Deep Fields Data Release 2. I. The ELAIS-N1 field
• A super-linear "radio-AGN main sequence'' links mean radio-AGN power and galaxy stellar mass since z$\sim$3
• Radio Burst from a Stellar Coronal Mass Ejection
• A search for inter-cluster filaments with LOFAR and eROSITA
• How does the radio enhancement of broad absorption line quasars relate to colour and accretion rate?
• Cosmic evolution of radio-excess AGNs in quiescent and star-forming galaxies across $0<z<4$
• The LOFAR LBA Sky Survey: Deep Fields I. The Boötes Field
• Cosmology from LOFAR Two-metre Sky Survey Data Release 2: Cross-correlation with the cosmic microwave background
• Limits and challenges of the detection of cluster-scale diffuse radio emission at high redshift: The Massive and Distant Clusters of WISE Survey (MaDCoWS) in LoTSS-DR2
• Characterising the extended morphologies of BL Lacs at 144 MHz with LOFAR
• Ionospheric contributions to the excess power in high-redshift 21-cm power-spectrum observations with LOFAR
• A study on the Clustering Properties of Radio-Selected sources in the Lockman Hole Region at 325 MHz
• Probing particle acceleration in Abell 2256: from to 16 MHz to gamma rays
• LOFAR Deep Fields: Probing faint Galactic polarised emission in ELAIS-N1
• Seeing the forest and the trees: a radio investigation of the ULIRG Mrk 273
• Probing the Mpc-scale environment of hyperluminous infrared galaxies at 2<z<4
• 1-arcsecond imaging of ELAIS-N1 field at 144MHz using the LoTSS survey with international LOFAR telescope
• New filamentary remnant radio emission and duty cycle constraints in the radio galaxy NGC 6086
• Filamentary Baryons and Where to Find Them: A forecast of synchrotron radiation from merger and accretion shocks in the local Cosmic Web
• LOFAR properties of SILVERRUSH Ly$\alpha$ emitter candidates in the ELAIS-N1 field
• Broadband Polarized Radio Emission Detected from Starlink Satellites Below 100 MHz with NenuFAR
• AGN feedback in an infant galaxy cluster: the LOFAR-Chandra view of the giant FRII radio galaxy J103025+052430 at z=1.7
• Low-frequency radio spectra of submillimetre galaxies in the Lockman Hole
• Apertif 1.4 GHz continuum observations of the Boötes field and their combined view with LOFAR
• Detection of coherent low-frequency radio bursts from weak-line TTauri stars
• Plausible association of distant late M dwarfs with low-frequency radio emission
• Monster radio jet (>66 kpc) observed in quasar at z$\sim$5
• The twisted jets and magnetic fields of the extended radio galaxy 4C 70.19
• High-$z$ radio Quasars in RACS I: Selection, identification, and multi-wavelength properties
• A multi-band AGN-SFG classifier for extragalactic radio surveys using machine learning
• Spectral study of the diffuse synchrotron source in the galaxy cluster Abell 523
• A 100 kpc Ram Pressure Tail Trailing the Group Galaxy NGC 2276
• LOFAR observations of gravitational wave merger events: O3 results and O4 strategy
• The ViCTORIA project: description of a multi-frequency radio survey of the Virgo galaxy cluster
• A new distant Giant Radio Galaxy in the Boötes field serendipitously detected by Chandra
• Ionospheric effect on the synthetic Epoch of Reionization observations with the SKA1-Low
• Revealing the intricacies of radio galaxies and filaments in the merging galaxy cluster Abell 2255. I. Insights from deep LOFAR-VLBI sub-arcsecond resolution images
• Pulsar B1237+25 Aberration/Retardation Analysis from Decimeter to Decameter Wavelength: Challenge to "Radius-to-Frequency Mapping"
• Correction of Radio Interferometric Imaging for Antenna Patterns
• Non-thermal emission in galaxy groups at extremely low frequency: the case of A1213
• SEMPER I. Radio Predictions for Star-Forming Galaxies at $0<z<5$
• A Morphological Identification and Study of Radio Galaxies from LoTSS DR2. I. The "Winged'' Radio Galaxies
• Exploring the X-ray-radio connection for AGN via measurements of the multi-dimensional luminosity function
• Relighting the fire in Hickson Compact Group (HCG) 15: magnetised fossil plasma revealed by the SKA Pathfinders & Precursors
• Detailed study of the Bootes field using 300-500 MHz uGMRT observations: Source Properties and radio--infrared correlations
• A deep study of A399-401: An application for wide-field facet calibration
• Combined LOFAR-uGMRT analysis of the diffuse radio emission in the massive clusters Abell 773 and Abell 1351
• The LOFAR sub-arcsecond view of the high-redshift radio relic in PSZ2G091.83+26.11
• Apertif, Phased Array Feeds for the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope
• Identifying Radio Active Galactic Nuclei with Machine Learning and Large-Area Surveys
• Hosts and environments: a (large-scale) radio history of AGN and star-forming galaxies
• Mapping the emission and spectral properties of the FRI radio galaxy 3C 449 with LOFAR and the VLA
• A high-resolution study of the double radio relic system in MACS J1752.0+4440
• Discovery of 178 Giant Radio Galaxies in 1059 deg${}^2$ of the Rapid ASKAP Continuum Survey at 888 MHz
• Revealing the intricacies of radio galaxies and filaments in the merging galaxy cluster Abell 2255. II. Properties of filaments using multi-frequency radio data
• Third-Generation Calibrations for MeerKAT observation
• Wide-field GMRT imaging of X-shaped Radio-Galaxies: Spectral properties of 4C32.25 and 4C61.23
• Prospects for radio weak lensing: studies using LOFAR observations in the ELAIS-N1 field
• The Nature of Hyperluminous Infrared Galaxies
• A LOFAR-uGMRT spectral index study of distant radio halos
• Spectral indices in active galactic nuclei as seen by Apertif and LOFAR
• Investigating the spectra and physical nature of galaxy scale jets
• Transformer-Based Source Detection and Morphological Classification in LOFAR Deep-Field Continuum Images