Twin electroweak bubble nucleation and gravitational wave under the $S_3$ symmetry of two-Higgs-doublet model

Abstract

Sphaleron electroweak phase transition (EWPT) is calculated in two phase transition stages, thereby showing that the twin (or double) bubble nucleation structure of the phase transition and gravitational wave is in the investigation area of future detectors. With $v^2=v_1^2+v_2^2$ ($v_1$ and $v_2$ are two vacuum average values (VEV)) and $a=v^2/v_2^2$ which affects the expansion of bubbles during two phase transitions. The more $a$ increases, the more the expansion of two bubbles is at the same time. This ratio does not greatly affect the sphaleron energy but has an impact on gravitational waves. The larger the masses of the charged Higgs particles are, the greater the gravitational wave energy density ($\hat{I}\text{c◯}{h}^2$) is. When the frequency is in the range $0-1.2$ mHz, $\hat{I}\text{c◯}{h}^2$ will has a maximum value in the range $10^{-12}-10^{-11}$ for all values of $a$ so this can be detected in the future.

32 pages, 17 figures; has been accepted for publication in the International Journal of Modern Physics D